A spiritual teacher, “one who knows the conduct or practice (
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
The basic components out of which the world and the personal self are formed, usually listed as a set of five: form, sensation, ideation, formations, and consciousness.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.
In the general Mahāyāna teachings the mind of awakening (bodhicitta) is the intention to attain the complete awakening of a perfect buddha for the sake of all beings. On the level of absolute truth, the mind of awakening is the realization of the awakened state itself.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
The lowest hell, the eighth of the eight hot hells.
Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity.
In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).
The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.
For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.
Literally the “ground” in which qualities grow like plants,
A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.
The way (yāna) of the bodhisattva, equivalent to the Mahāyāna.
A member of the highest of the four castes in Indian society, which is closely associated with religious vocations.
An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13.
Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.
A brahmin girl who falsely accuses the Buddha Śākyamuni of impregnating her. Pali Ciñcā. See
An epithet for a bodhisattva. See “jina.”
A mental state that induces one to avoid actions that would be condemned by others. Pali
The fifth of the five aggregates.
Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.
A teaching that conveys the truth without the need for further explanation.
In the most general sense the devas—the term is cognate with the English divine—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.
A cousin of the Buddha Śākyamuni who broke with him and established his own community. He is portrayed as engendering evil schemes against the Buddha and even succeeding in wounding him. He is usually identified with wicked beings in accounts of previous lifetimes.
The elephant of King Bimbisāra who was set loose by Devadatta in order to kill the Buddha. The account is given in many Sanskrit and Pali sources, where the elephant is also called Nālāgiri and Vasupāla. The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, Toh 1-6) tells of his birth (10.54), while the Saṅghabhedavastu (On Schisms in the Saṅgha, Toh 1-17, folios 238.a–241.b) tells of his taming by the Buddha, followed by his death and rebirth in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings.
The fourth of the five eyes, the five superior levels of vision experienced by realized beings, the other four being the physical eye (māṃsacakṣus), the divine eye (divyacakṣus), the wisdom eye (prajñācakṣus), and the buddha eye (buddhacakṣus).
See “dharma realm.”
An early term used to denote the Buddha’s teaching. “Dharma” refers to the sūtras and “Vinaya” to the rules of discipline.
Speaker or reciter of scriptures. In early Buddhism a section of the saṅgha would consist of bhāṇakas, who, particularly before the teachings were written down and were only transmitted orally, were a key factor in the preservation of the teachings. Various groups of dharmabhāṇakas specialized in memorizing and reciting a certain set of sūtras or vinaya.
Eighty of the hundred and twelve identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartin kings, in addition to the so-called “thirty-two signs of a great being.” They are considered secondary to the thirty-two signs. They can be found listed in The Play in Full (Lalitavistara, Toh 95), 7.100.
Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.
A brahmin village in which the Buddha failed to receive alms, in some accounts due to its inhabitants being possessed by Māra. In the same episode in the Piṇḍasutta (SN 4.18), the village is called Pañcasālā or Pañcasāla (“Having Five Sālā Trees”). In The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (Toh 82, folios 63.b–64.b) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (Toh 261, folios 306.a–306.b), this village is called Endowed with Great Śāla Trees (
A teaching that is context-specific or requires further explanation.
Refers to the fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.
The bodhisattvas’ realization that all phenomena are unproduced and empty. It sustains them on the difficult path of benefiting all beings so that they do not succumb to the goal of personal liberation. Different sources link this realization to the first or eighth bodhisattva level (bhūmi).
As the first of the five aggregates, it refers to material form.
The meaning of this term varies according to context; as the fourth of the five aggregates, it refers the entire array of bad, good, and neutral mental activities that are concomitant with the production of karmic seeds that cause and condition future saṃsāric existence.
Four qualities of the samādhi that has the activity of eliminating negative factors: aspiration, diligence, contemplation, and analysis. These are four of the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.
According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.
The family name of Siddhārtha, who became known as the Buddha Śākyamuni. There was believed to be a patrilineal descent from the ancient Indian sage Gautama, to whom is attributed the Gautama Sūtra that prescribes entry into the homeless life as a bhikṣu with orange robes and a shaved head and alms bowl.
The Sanskrit pravrajyā literally means “going forth,” with the sense of leaving the life of a householder and embracing the life of a renunciant. When the term is applied more technically, it refers to the act of becoming a male novice (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or female novice (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma), this being a first stage leading to full ordination.
An epithet for a buddha.
A spiritual teacher, in particular one with whom one has a personal teacher–student relationship.
chos bcu pa (Daśadharmaka). Toh 53, Degé Kangyur vol. 40 (dkon brtsegs, kha), folios 164.a–184.b.
chos bcu pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 40, pp. 460–510.
chos bcu pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 36 (dkon brtsegs, kha), folios 241.b–273.a.
thabs mkhas pa’i mdo (Upāyakauśalyasūtra) [The Sūtra on Skill in Means]. Toh 261, Degé Kangyur vol. 66 (mdo sde, za), folios 283.b–310.a.
dam pa’i chos pad ma dkar po (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka). Toh 113, Degé Kangyur vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. English translation The White Lotus of the Good Dharma 2018.
byang sems ye shes dam pas zhus pa (Jñānottarabodhisattvaparipṛcchā) [The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara]. Toh 82, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 30.b–70.a.
sbyin pa’i pha rol tu phyin pa (Dānapāramitā). Toh 182, Degé Kangyur vol. 61 (mdo sde, tsa), folios 77.a–95.b. English translation The Perfection of Generosity 2019.
sman gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Toh 1, ch. 6, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 277.b–311.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–317.a; and vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.a–50.a. English translation The Chapter on Medicines 2021.
lang kar gshegs pa’i mdo (Laṅkāvatārasūtra) [The Sūtra on the Descent into Laṅkā]. Toh 107, Degé Kangyur vol. 49 (mdo sde, ca), folios 56.a–191.b.
Bhāviveka (Bhavya). dbu ma’i snying po’i ’grel pa rtog ge ’bar ba (Madhyamakahṛdayavṛttitarkajvālā) [Blaze of Reasoning: A Commentary on “The Essence of the Middle Way”]. Toh 3856, Degé Tengyur vol. 98 (dbu ma, dza), folios 40.b–329.a.
Jñānagarbha. ’phags pa sgo mtha’ yas pas sgrub pa’i gzungs rgya cher ’grel pa (Āryānantamukhanirhāradhāraṇīṭīkā). Toh 2696, Degé Tengyur vol. 72 (rgyud ’grel, nu), folios 10.a–63.b.
Kṣemendra. byang chub sems dpa’i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi ’khri shing (Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā). Toh 4155, Degé Tengyur vol. 170 (mdo ’grel, khe), folios 1.b–366.a.
Śāntideva. bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya) [Compendium of Training]. Toh 3940, Degé Tengyur vol. 111 (mdo ’grel, dbu ma, khi), folios 3.a–194.b.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos kyi ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
84000. The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, sman gyi gzhi, Toh 1-6). Translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
84000. “Heap of Jewels.” Online Knowledge Base. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2024.
84000. The Perfection of Generosity (Dānapāramitā, sbyin pa’i pha rol tu phyin pa, Toh 182). Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2019.
84000. The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, dam pa’i chos pad ma dkar po, Toh 113). Translated by Peter Alan Roberts. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
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