(1) The Root Manual of the Rites of Mañjuśrī (Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, Toh 543), 2.129; (2) ral pa gyen brdzes kyi rtog pa chen po, byang chub sems dpa’ chen po’i rnam par ’phrul pa le’u rab ’byams las bcom ldan ’das ma ’phags ma sgrol ma’i rtsa ba’i rtog pa (Ūrdhvajaṭā-mahākalpamahābodhisattvavikurvaṇapaṭalavisarā bhagavatī āryatārāmūlakalpa), Toh 724 vol. tsa, folio 239.a; (3) dkyil ’khor thams cad kyi spyi’i cho ga gsang ba’i rgyud (Sarvamaṇḍalasāmānyavidhiguhyatantra), Toh 806, folio 152.b. The citations in Toh 543 and 724 are identical, differing only in the terminology chosen by the texts’ respective Tibetan translators. In fact, significant portions of Toh 724 appear to be shared with Toh 543.
(1) Vinayadatta, sgyu ’phrul chen po’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga bla ma’i zhal snga’i man ngag (Gurūpadeśanāmamahāmāyāmaṇḍalopāyikā), Toh 1645, folio 209.a; (2) Bhavyakīrti, sgron ma gsal bar byed pa dgongs pa rab gsal zhes bya ba bshad pa’i ti ka (Pradīpoddyotanābhisaṁdhiprakāśikānāmavyākhyāṭīkā), Toh 1793, folio 201.a; (3) Pramuditākaravarman, gsang ba ’dus pa rgyud kyi rgyal po’i bshad pa zla ba’i ’od zer (Guhyasamājatantrarājaṭīkācandraprabhā), Toh 1852, folio 169.b; (4) Vitapāda, gsang ba ’dus pa’i dkyil ’khor gyi sgrub pa’i thabs rnam par bshad pa (Guhyasamājamaṇḍalopāyikāṭīkā), Toh 1873, folio 209.a; (5) Ānandagarbha, rdo rje dbyings kyi dkyil ’khor chen po’i cho ga rdo rje thams cad ’byung ba (Vajradhātumahāmaṇḍalopāyikāsarvavajrodaya), Toh 2516, folio 50.a; (6) Anonymous,’jam pa’i rdo rje ’byung ba’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga sems can thams cad kyi bde ba bskyed pa (Mañjuvajrodayamaṇḍalopāyikāsarvasattvahitāvahā). Toh 2590; (7) Kāmadhenu, ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba cho ga zhib mo’i rgyal po chen po’i rgya cher ’grel pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājanāmamahākalparājaṭīkā), Toh 2625; (8) Ānandagarbha, de bzhin gshegs pa dgra bcom pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i sangs rgyas ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba’i bshad pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājatathāgatārhatsamyaksaṃbuddhanāmakalpaṭīkā), Toh 2628, folio 73.a; (9) Sthiramati, rgyan dam pa sna tshogs rim par phye ba bkod pa (Paramālaṃkāraviśvapaṭalavyūha), Toh 2661, folio 322.b; (10) Sahajalalita, kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi snying po dang dam tshig la rnam par lta ba zhes bya ba’i gzungs kyi rnam par bshad pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsasarvatathāgatahṛdayasamayavilokitanāmadhāraṇīvṛtti), Toh 2688, folio 292.b.
(1) Bodhisattva, kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba’i gzungs bklag cing chod rten brgya rtsa brgyad dam mchod rten lnga gdab pa’i cho ga mdo sde las btus pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsadhāraṇīvacanasūtrāntoddhṛtāṣṭottaraśatacaityāntarapañcacaityanirvapaṇavidhi), Toh 3068, folios 145.a, 151.b, 153.b; (2) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, dbu ma’i man ngag rin po che’i za ma tog kha phye ba zhes bya ba (Ratnakaraṇḍodghāṭanāmamadhyamakopadeśa), Toh 3930, folios 99.a, 115.a; (3) Śāntideva, bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya), Toh 3940, folios 3.a–194.b, 90.a–91.b, 122.a–123.b; (4) Vairocanarakṣita, bslab pa me tog snye ma (Śikṣākusumamañjarī), Toh 3943, folio 200.a; (5) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, byang chub lam gyi sgron ma’i dka’ ’grel (Bodhimārgapradīpapañjikā), Toh 3948, folio 20.b.
(1) Anonymous, gser ’od dam pa mdo sde dbang po’i smon lam (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrapraṇidhāna), Toh 4379; (2) Anonymous, rgyal po gser gyi lag pa’i smon lam (Rājasuvarṇabhujapraṇidhāna), Toh 4380.
(1) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, mngon par rtogs pa rnam par ’byed pa (Abhisamayavibhaṅga), Toh 1490, folio 201.a; (2) Āryadeva, spyod pa bsdud pa’i sgron ma (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa), Toh 1803, folio 106.a; (3) Mañjuśrīkīrti, ’jam dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par brjod pa’i rgya cher bshad pa (Mañjuśrināmasaṅgitiṭīka), Toh 2534, folio 217.b; (4) Haribhadra, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i bshad pa mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi snang ba (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyānābhisamayālaṃkārāloka), Toh 3791, folio 84.b; (5) Dharmakīrtiśrī, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i ’grel pa rtogs par dka’ ba’i snang ba zhes bya ba’i ’grel bshad (Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstravṛttidurbodhālokanāmaṭīkā), Toh 3794, folio 152.b; (6) Dharmamitra, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi tshig le’ur byas pa’i ’grel bshad tshig rab tu gsal ba (Abhisamayālaṃkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstraṭīkā prasphuṭapadā), Toh 3796, folio 104.a.
(1) Ekādaśanirghoṣa, rdo rje ’chang chen po’i lam gyi rim pa’i man ngag bdud rtsi gsang ba (Mahāvajradharapathakramopadeśāmṛtaguhya), Toh 1823, folio 274.a; (2) Yeshé Dé, lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan (Laṅkāvatāranāmamahāyānasūtravṛttitathāgatahṛdayālaṃkāra), Toh 4019, folios 29.a, 29.b, 152.b, 279.b, 302.a.
Termed the Navadharma (“Nine Dharmas”) or Navagrantha (“Nine Texts”), these works are (1) Prajñāpāramitā, (2) Gaṇḍavyūha, (3) Daśabhūmi, (4) Samādhirāja, (5) Laṅkāvatāra, (6) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, (7) Lalitavistara, (8) Suvarṇaprabhāsa, and (9) Tathāgatagūhya. See Lewis (1993), 327, n. 15.
Paltsek, gsung rab rin po che’i gtam rgyud dang shA kya’i rabs rgyud, Toh 4357, folios 273.a and 331.b.
Yeshé Dé, lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan, Toh 4019, folios 29.a, 29.b, 152.b, 279.b, 302.a.
This is his name as given in The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (p. 996). His name is variously given elsewhere as Wonchuk, Wen Tsheg, Yuance, Yuan Tso, and in Tibetan translation as Dzoksal (rdzogs gsal).
No Sanskrit title is given since this version was translated from the Chinese. The rendering of the Chinese title varies in different editions of the Kangyur. The Degé has tā shin kyin kwang myutsa’i shin wang kyin. The Yongle has ta’i ching gim gom mang dza’i shing wang gyi. The Kangxi has ta’i ching gin grom ming dza’i shing wang gying. The Narthang reads de’i shing ki ma kwang med dzwa’i shing wang kyang. The Lhasa version has tā shin kyin kwang mya ru tsa’i shin wa da kyin. These appear to be variants as a result of differing regional pronunciations and scribal corruptions of what would now be written as Da cheng jin guang ming zui sheng wang jing 大乘金光明最勝王經. Zhiyi智顗 (538–97), a.k.a. Tiantai zhizhe dashi 天台智者大師, writing in his commentary on this sūtra titled Jin guang ming jing xuan yi 金光明經玄義, cited Paramārtha (a.k.a. Zhendi 真諦) in giving the Sanskrit pronunciation of the title of the sūtra as Xiu ba na po po po yu do mo yin tuo luo zhe yue na xiu duo luo 修跋拏婆頗婆欝多摩因陀羅遮閱那修多羅, presumably transcribing Suvarṇaprabhāsottamarājasūtraṃ. The CBETA collection appears to concur.
In the eKangyur version that supports this web display, 19.a is a blank folio that corresponds to the blank folio found in the Degé edition, which is numbered 19.b.
There have been two ways to interpret this traditional beginning of a sūtra, with Indian masters such as Kamalaśīla claiming that both are equally correct. The alternative interpretation is “Thus did I hear: at one time the Bhagavān …” and so on. The various arguments, both traditional and modern, for either side are given by Brian Galloway in “Thus Have I Heard: At one time…,” Indo-Iranian Journal 34, Issue 2 (April 1991): 87–104.
In BG and TWC this is followed by a sentence not included in YJ. All details about the entourage are omitted; the chapter proceeds to verses.
YJ has 百千萬億, which literally means “one hundred times one thousand times ten thousand times one hundred thousand.” Thus, one hundred trillion. 億 is defined as “one hundred thousand.”
The text has only the first half of the name, equivalent to Avalokita. By contrast, Toh 556 has a lengthened kun tu spyan ras gzigs dbang phyug, equivalent in back translation to Samantāvalokiteśvara.
YJ has 皆發弘願護持大乘，紹隆正法能使不絕 (“They all made a great vow to protect and uphold the Mahāyāna, and to maintain the correct Dharma and make it prosper, such that it will not cease”).
Rather than listing the court and queens separately, YJ reads 中宮后妃 (“the queen and imperial consorts of the court”).
According to Toh 556. Toh 555 has rab tu ’dzum pa (“completely shut”), which is evidently a scribal corruption in the Tibetan from rab tu mi ’dzum pa, a standard expression for gazing fixedly in adoration.
Rather than “The buddhas in the four directions / Will bestow their blessing,” YJ reads 並四方四佛，威神共加護 (“The buddhas in the four directions / Will together protect it with their mighty power”).
YJ has 我復演妙法，吉祥懺中勝，能滅一切罪，淨除諸惡業。(“The supreme Dharma that I have explained / Is auspicious and the best of all confessions. / It is capable of diminishing all sins / And cleansing all bad karma”).
The other versions of the sūtra have an additional line between the first and the second lines, “Whose lives are in decline and ending,” as does the equivalent Sanskrit and the Chinese. Sanskrit: sattvā naṣṭā hatāyuṣaḥ. YJ has 壽命將減損 (“whose lifespan will decrease”); BG and TWC do not have the auxiliary verb將 (“will”). The Tibetan translation of this version of the sūtra appears to have lost this line.
BG and TWC include an additional line, which reads 王法所加 (“who are punished under the king’s laws”).
YJ has 於此妙經王，甚深佛所讚，專注心無亂，讀誦聽受持 (“On this king of all sublime sutras, / Which is profound and praised by buddhas, / They should concentrate with an undisturbed mind; / They should read, recite, listen to, and retain it.”)
In Sanskrit this is tridaśendra (“Lords of the Thirty”), referring to the Trāyāstriṃśā paradise on the summit of Meru, which is ruled by Indra. In the Toh 556 version, his name is Devendra (“lord of devas”). YJ has 帝釋主, a translation referring either to tridaśendra or śakra. BG and TWC have三十三天 (“Thirty-Three Celestials”).
In Sanskrit, the last three lines of this verse read, “With the greatly powerful lords of the kinnaras, / And similarly with the lords of the garuḍas, / And the hosts of yakṣas, gandharvas, and pannas (serpents, i.e., nāgas).”
Toh 556 and 557 have, in addition, “And by kinnaras, asuras, and yakṣas.” YJ has the third and fourth lines as 常為諸天人，龍神所恭敬 (“Will be continuously revered / By devas, humans, and nāgas”). BG and TWC read slightly differently from YJ, which has “… devas and the eight classes [of nāgas].”
spyod pa. Toh 556: yang dag par par blangs te gnas par gyur. Toh 557: yang dag par blangs par gyur. YJ matches Toh 555:行十善道 (“practiced the path of the ten good actions”). BG and TWC have 具足十善 (“perfected all ten good actions”).
In Toh 556, the house is made of beryl. BG and TWC have 天紺琉璃 (“celestial blue beryls”). YJ has 帝青琉璃 (“Indranīlamuktā blue beryls”).
Toh 555 has bzhin (“like”) in error for bzhir (“in the four”). All three Chinese versions have “four.”
“Were free of all distress” is absent in YJ. YJ instead reads 無有乏少 (“… and nothing was lacking”).
Sanskrit: “the bodhisattva mahāsattva.” TWC, BG, and YJ are the same as Toh 555, having just “bodhisattva.”
YJ adds 汝今不應思忖如來受命長短，何以故？善男子 (“You should not think of the length of the lifespan of the Tathāgata Sakyamuni. Why? Noble one!”).
In TWC, this verse is followed by a short summary, and the chapter concludes with the disappearance of the four tathāgatas. TWC has no further teachings on the Buddha’s lifespan and the fact that he does not pass into nirvāṇa. BG includes the teachings on lifespan but does not contain the teaching on the Buddha’s not passing into nirvāṇa.
BG includes a list of four: 生苦想、希有想、未曾有想、憂愁想 (“thoughts of life and of suffering, of something being rare, of something not having existed before, and of grief and distress”).
YJ has 為人解說，不生謗毀 (“will explain the teachings to others and not blame or criticize those teachings”). 為人解說 is absent in BG.
BG also includes 不生希有想，憂愁想，未曾有想 (“would not have thoughts of the teachings being rare, would not have thoughts of grief and distress, and would not have thoughts of the teachings being something that never existed before”).
BG does not include “in order to benefit beings, to dispel the obstacle of famine, and to bring happiness.”
Rather than “those teachers of devas and humans,” BG has 四方四佛世尊 (“those four buddhas in the four directions”).
BG does not include “in order to bring benefit and happiness to all beings.” In YJ this line reads 善哉！善哉！彼四如來乃能為諸眾生饒益安樂，勸請於我宣揚正法 (“It is excellent, excellent that those four tathāgatas have requested me to expound the true Dharma in order to bring benefit and happiness to all beings”).
This line shows significant variation across sources and is difficult to interpret precisely. The translation here follows the Chinese in regarding kauṇḍinya as the brahmin’s family name (姓). This brahmin is then“named (名曰) the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa " (法師授記). The Tibetan sources for Toh 555 appear to take kauṇḍinya as the brahmin’s proper name and treat the rest of the phrase as descriptive, reading "The brahmin named Kauṇḍinya who was prophesied by a/the Dharma master (bram ze kauN+Di n+ya chos kyi slob dpon gyis lung bstan pa). To further complicate matters, the Degé version of Toh 555 also declines kauṇḍinya in the instrumental, which would result in the reading "the brahmin prophesied by the Dharma master Kauṇḍinya.” The Kangxi, Lhasa, Narthang, Stok Palace, and Yongle versions of Toh 555 lack this instrumental declension. Toh 556 and 557 render this figure’s name more simply as slob dpon lung ston pa bram ze kauN+Di n+ya, which can be interpreted to mean “the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākāraṇa.” The extant Sanskrit reads ācāryavyākaraṇaprāptaḥ kauṇḍinyo nāma brāhmaṇaḥ, which could be taken to mean “The brahmin named Kauṇḍinya who had obtained a prophecy from a/the Dharma master.” The Sanskrit line includes the term “obtained” (prāpta), which is not attested in the Chinese and Tibetan sources.
BG adds 與百千婆羅門眾俱從坐起 (“rising from his seat together with hundreds of thousands of brahmins”).
A deva.
“Clear Light.” The highest of the three paradises that correspond to the second dhyāna in the form realm.
A buddha.
Acacia sundra, Acacia catechu. A tree that can grow to 50 feet. Also called catechu, cachou, cutch tree, black cutch, and black catechu. Its bark, gum, shoots, and fruits are used in Āyurvedic medicine. Ludvik suggests Albizzia lebbek. The Chinese term translates to “mimosa” (see Ludvik 2007, p. 309). (In Toh 556, Degé edition, it is shi ri shA).
These palaces served as both vehicles and residences for deities.
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
Also rendered here as “kleśa.”
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
Also translated here as “affliction.”
Amyris agallocha. Also called agallochum and aloeswood. This is a resinous heartwood that has been infected by the fungus Phialophora parasitica. In India, agarwood is primarily derived from the fifteen Aquilaria (Aquilaria malaccensis) and nine Gyrinops species of lign-aloe trees.
A god who is the king of lightning in the eastern direction.
The god of fire.
A court priest in the Buddha’s father’s kingdom who predicted the Buddha’s enlightenment, he later became one of the Buddha’s five companions in asceticism. These five renounced the Buddha (then Siddhartha) when he abandoned asceticism, but after his enlightenment they became his disciples. Kauṇḍinya famously was the first to comprehend the Buddha’s teaching, and in that way became the first (after the Buddha) to gain the status of an arhat.
The eighth and highest level of the Realm of Form (rūpadhātu), the last of the five pure abodes (śuddhāvāsa); it is only accessible as the result of specific states of dhyāna. According to some texts this is where non-returners (anāgāmin) dwell in their last lives. In other texts it is the realm of the enjoyment body (saṃbhogakāya) and is a buddhafield associated with the Buddha Vairocana; it is accessible only to bodhisattvas on the tenth level.
A bodhisattva.
A bodhisattva.
Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.
The kingdom of yakṣas located on Mount Sumeru and ruled over by Kubera, also known as Vaiśravaṇa.
A bodhisattva.
The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.
Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.
The buddha of the western realm of Sukhāvatī. Also known as Amitābha.
A yakṣa.
The nectar of immortality possessed by the devas, it is used as a metaphor for the teaching that brings liberation.
A buddha.
“Cloudless.” In the Sarvāstivāda tradition, the lowest of the three paradises that correspond to the fourth dhyāna in the form realm. Translated in other texts as sprin dang bral ba.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A nāga king whose domain is Lake Anavatapta. According to Buddhist cosmology, this lake is located near Mount Sumeru and is the source of the four great rivers of Jambudvīpa. It is often identified with Lake Manasarovar at the foot of Mount Kailash in Tibet.
A bodhisattva.
A buddha.
A buddha.
“Immeasurable Light.” The second highest of the three paradises that correspond to the second dhyāna in the form realm. Translated in other texts as tshad med snang ba.
“Immeasurable Goodness.” The second highest of the three paradises that correspond to the third dhyāna in the form realm.
According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.
According to Ludvik, the Chinese corresponds to Laevocamphor, Malay camphor, from Blumea balsamiflora. Maue and Sertkaya, however, note that 艾 ai of 艾納 aina referred to a specific species of Artemisia. Gö Chödrup understood aina in this sense. See Ludvik 2007, p. 312, especially n. 19.
The Sanskrit ārya has the general meaning of a noble person, one of a higher class or caste. In Buddhist literature, depending on the context, it often means specifically one who has gained the realization of the path and is superior for that reason. In particular, it applies to stream enterers, once-returners, non-returners, and worthy ones (arhats) and is also used as an epithet of bodhisattvas. In the five-path system, it refers to someone who has achieved at least the path of seeing (darśanamārga).
A distinct number: 1 to the power of 60, according to the Abhidharmakośa. See also asaṃkhyeya eon.
The name of a certain kind of kalpa, literally meaning “incalculable.” The number of years in this kalpa differs in various sūtras that give a number. Also, twenty intermediate kalpas are said to be one asaṃkhyeya (incalculable) kalpa, and four incalculable kalpas are one great kalpa. In that case, those four incalculable kalpas represent the eons of the creation, presence, destruction, and absence of a world. Buddhas are often described as appearing in a second incalculable kalpa.
A bodhisattva.
The seven branches of enlightenment are mindfulness, analysis of phenomena, diligence, joy, tranquility, samādhi, and equanimity.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
One of the five companions with whom Siddhārtha Gautama practiced asceticism near the Nairañjanā River and who later heard the Buddha first teach the four noble truths at the Deer Park in Sarnath. He was renowned for his pure conduct and holy demeanor, so the Buddha sent him to attract Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana to the order.
This is the fourth highest of the five Śuddhāvāsa paradises, the highest paradises in the form realm. In this sūtra it is the second highest. Here translated as meaning “Not Pained.” In other texts translated as ma dros pa (“Not Warm”).
A yakṣa king.
A lake in a wilderness.
First appeared as a bodhisattva beside Amitābha in the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī , Toh 115). The name has been variously interpreted. In its meaning as “the lord of avalokita,” avalokita has been interpreted as “seeing,” although, as a past passive participle, it is literally “lord of what has been seen.” One of the principal sūtras in the Mahāsāṃghika tradition was the Avalokita Sūtra, which has not been translated into Tibetan, in which the word is a synonym for enlightenment, as it is “that which has been seen” by the buddhas. In the early tantras, he was one of the lords of the three families, as the embodiment of the compassion of the Buddhas. The Potalaka Mountain in South India became important in Southern Indian Buddhism as his residence in this world, but Potalaka does not feature in the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra (The Basket’s Display , Toh 116), which is the most important sūtra dedicated to Avalokiteśvara.
The lowest hell, the eighth of the eight hot hells.
In the Sarvāstivāda tradition, this is the lowest of the five Śuddhāvāsa paradises, the highest paradises in the form realm, and is said to be the most common rebirth for the “non-returners” of the Śrāvakayāna. In this sūtra it is the third highest.
These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).
In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.
In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
The classical system of Indian medicine.
A king in the distant past.
An asura king. Indian literary sources describe how Bali wrested control of the world from the devas, establishing a period of peace and prosperity with no caste distinction. Indra requested Viṣṇu to use his wiles to gain back the world from him for the devas. Viṣṇu appeared as a dwarf asking for two steps of ground, was offered three, and then traversed the world in two steps. Bali, remaining faithful to his promise, accepted the banishment of the asuras into the underworld. A great Bali festival in his honor is held annually in South India.
Ficus benghalensis. Its branches can spread widely, sending down multiple trunks, and it is therefore the most extensive of trees.
Ocimum basilicum. Commonly known in India as tulsi, this is a sacred plant in the Hindu tradition.
gser ’od dam pa’ i mdo. Toh 555, Degé Kangyur vol. 89 (rgyud ’bum, pa), folios 19.a–151a.
gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 556, Degé Kangyur vol. 89 (rgyud ’bum, pa), folios 151.b–273.a. English translation The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (2) 2024.
gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 557, Degé Kangyur vol. 90 (rgyud ’bum, pha), folios 1.a–62.a. English translation The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (3) 2024.
dkyil ’khor thams cad kyi spyi’i cho gag sang ba’i rgyud (Sarvamaṇḍalasāmānyavidhiguhyatantra). Toh 806, Degé Kangyur vol. 96 (rgyud, wa), folios 141.a–167.b.
’jam dpal gyi rtsa ba’i rgyud (Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa). Toh 543, Degé Kangyur vol.88 (rgyud, na), folios 105.a–351.a. English translation The Root Manual of the Rites of Mañjuśrī 2020.
’od srung kyi le’u zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Kāśyapaparivartanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 87, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 119.b–151.b.
ral pa gyen brdzes kyi rtog pa chen po byang chub sems dpa’ chen po’i rnam par ’phrul pa le’u rab ’byams las bcom ldan ’das ma ’phags ma sgrol ma’i rtsa ba’i rtog pa zhes bya ba (Ūrdhvajaṭāmahākalpamahābodhisattvavikurvaṇapaṭalavisarā bhagavatī āryatārāmūlakalpanāma). Toh 724, Degé Kangyur vol. 93 (rgyud, tsa), folios 205.b–311.a, and vol. 94 (rgyud, tsha), folios 1.a–200.a.
blo gros mi zad pas zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Akṣayamatiparipṛcchānāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 89, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 175.b–182.b.
lang kar gshegs pa’i theg pa chen po’i mdo (Laṅkāvatāramahāyānasūtra). Toh 107, Degé Kangyur vol. 49 (mdo sde, ca), folios 56.a–191.b.
las kyi sgrib pa gcod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Karmāvaraṇapratipraśrabdhināmamahāyānasūtra) Toh 219, Degé Kangyur vol. 62 (mdo sde, tsha), folios 297.b–307.a. English translation Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations 2024.
Ajitaśrībhadra. dga’ ba’i bshes gnyen gyi rtogs pa (Nandamitrāvadāna). Toh 4146, Degé Tengyur vol. 269 (’dul ba, su), folios 240.a–244.b.
Ānandagarbha. rdo rje dbyings kyi dkyil ’khor chen po’i cho ga rdo rje thams cad ’byungs ba (Vajradhātumahāmaṇḍalopāyikāsarvavajrodaya). Toh 2516, Degé Tengyur vol. 62 (rgyud, ku), folios 1.a–50.a.
Anonymous. rgyal po gser gyi lag pa’i smon lam (Rājasuvarṇabhujapraṇidhāna). Toh 4380, Degé Tengyur vol. 309 (sna tshogs, nyo), folios 309b–310a.
Anonymous. ’jam pa’i rdo rje ’byung ba’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga sems can thams cad kyi bde ba bskyed pa (Mañjuvajrodayamaṇḍalopāyikāsarvasattvahitāvahā). Toh 2590, Degé Tengyur vol. 65 (rgyud, ngu), folios 225.a–274.a.
Anonymous. gser ’od dam pa mdo sde dbang po’i smon lam (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrapraṇidhāna). Toh 4379, Degé Tengyur vol. 309 (sna tshogs, nyo), folios 304.b–309.b.
Āryadeva. spyod pa bsdud pa’i sgron ma (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa). Toh 1803, Degé Tengyur vol. 65 (rgyud, ngi), folios 57.a–106.b.
Bhavya. dbu ma rin po che’i sgron ma (Madhyamakaratnapradīpa). Toh 3854, Degé Tengyur vol. 199 (dbu ma, tsha), folios 259.b–289.a.
Bhavyakīrti. sgron ma gsal bar byed pa dgongs pa rab gsal zhes bya ba bshad pa’i ti ka (Pradīpoddyotanābhisaṁdhiprakāśikānāmavyākhyāṭīkā). Toh 1793, Degé Tengyur vols. 32–33 (rgyud, ki), folios 1.b–292.a, and (rgyud, khi), folios 1.b–155.a.
Bodhisattva. kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba’i gzungs bklag cing chod rten brgya rtsa brgyad dam mchod rten lnga gdab pa’i cho ga mdo sde las btus pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsadhāraṇīvacanasūtrāntoddhṛtāṣṭottaraśatacaityāntarapañcacaityanirvapaṇavidhi). Toh 3068, Degé Tengyur vol. 74 (rgyud, pu), folios 140.a–153.a.
Buddhānandagarbha. de bzhin gshegs pa dgra bcom pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i sangs rgyas ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba’i bshad pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājatathāgatārhatsamyaksaṃbuddhanāmakalpaṭīkā). Toh 2628, Degé Tengyur vol. 68 (rgyud, ju), folios 1.a–97.a.
Dharmakīrtiśrī. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i ’grel pa rtogs par dka’ ba’i snang ba zhes bya ba’i ’grel bshad (Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstravṛttidurbodhālokanāmaṭīkā). Toh 3794, Degé Tengyur vol. 86 (sher phyin, ja), folios 140.b–254.a.
Dharmamitra. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi tshig le’ur byas pa’i ’grel bshad tshig rab tu gsal ba (Abhisamayālaṃkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstraṭīkāprasphuṭapadā). Toh 3796, Degé Tengyur vol. 87 (sher phyin, nya), folios 1.a–110.a.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. dbu ma’i man ngag rin po che’i za ma tog kha phye ba zhes bya ba (Ratnakaraṇḍodghāṭanāmamadhyamakopadeśa). Toh 3930, Degé Tengyur vol. 212 (dbu ma, ki), folios 96.b–116.b.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. byang chub lam gyi sgron ma’i dka’ ’grel (Bodhimārgapradīpapañjikā). Toh 3948, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (mdo ’grel, khi), folios 241.a–293.a.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. mngon par rtogs pa rnam par ’byed pa (Abhisamayavibhaṅga). Toh 1490, Degé Tengyur vol. 22 (rgyud, zha), folios 186.a–202.b.
Ekādaśanirghoṣa. rdo rje ’chang chen po’i lam gyi rim pa’i man ngag bdud rtsi gsang ba (Mahāvajradharapathakramopadeśāmṛtaguhya). Toh 1823, Degé Tengyur vol. 35 (rgyud, ngi), folios 267.b–278.a.
Haribhadra. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i bshad pa mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi snang ba (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyānābhisamayālaṃkārāloka). Toh 3791, Degé Tengyur vol. 85 (sher phyin, cha), folios 1.a–341.a.
Kāmadhenu. ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba cho ga zhib mo’i rgyal po chen po’i rgya cher ’grel pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājanāmamahākalparājaṭīkā). Toh 2625, Degé Tengyur vol. 666 (rgyud, cu), folios 231.a–341.a.
Mañjuśrīkīrti. ’jam dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par brjod pa’i rgya cher bshad pa (Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgītiṭīkā). Toh 2534, Degé Tengyur vol. 63 (gyud, khu), folios 115.b–301.a.
Paltsek (dpal brtsegs). gsung rab rin po che’i gtam rgyud dang shA kya’i rabs rgyud. Toh 4357, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 239.a–377.a.
Paltsek (dpal brtsegs). pho brang stod thang lhan dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag (Buddhavacanasūcilipi). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 308 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Pramuditākaravarman. gsang ba ’dus pa rgyud kyi rgyal po’i bshad pa zla ba’i ’od zer (Guhyasamājatantrarājaṭīkācandraprabhā). Toh 1852, Degé Tengyur vol. 41 (rgyud, thi), folios 120.a–313.a.
Sahajalalita. kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi snying po dang dam tshig la rnam par blta ba zhes bya ba’i gzungs kyi rnam par bshad pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsasarvatathāgatahṛdayasamayavilokitanāmadhāraṇīvṛtti). Toh 2688, Degé Tengyur vol. 71 (rgyud, thu), folios 269.a–320.b.
Śāntideva. bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya). Toh 3940, Degé Tengyur vol. 111 (dbu ma, khi), folios 3.a–194.b.
Sthiramati. rgyan dam pa sna tshogs rim par phye ba bkod pa (Paramālaṃkāraviśvapaṭalavyūha). Toh 2661, Degé Tengyur vol. 68 (rgyud, ju), folios 317.a–339.a.
Vairocanarakṣita. bslab pa me tog snye ma (Śikṣākusumamañjarī). Toh 3943, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (dbu ma, khi), folios 196.a–217.a.
Various authors. bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa [chen po] (Mahāvyutpatti*). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 1.a–131.a.
Various authors. sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa. Toh 4347, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 131.b–160.a.
Vinayadatta. sgyu ’phrul chen mo’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga bla ma’i zhal snga’i man ngag (Gurūpadeśanāmamahāmāyāmaṇḍalopāyikā). Toh 1645, Degé Tengyur vol. 25 (rgyud, ya), folios 290.a–309.a.
Vitapāda. gsang ba ’dus pa’i dkyil ’khor gyi sgrub pa’i thabs rnam par bshad pa (Guhyasamājamaṇḍalopāyikāṭīkā). Toh 1873, Degé Tengyur vol. 43 (rgyud, ni), folios 178.b–219.a.
Wönch’ük (Wen tsheg). dgongs pa zab mo nges par ’grel pa’i mdo rgya cher ’grel pa (Gambhīrasaṁdhinirmocanasūtraṭīkā). Toh 4016, Degé Tengyur vol. 220 (mdo ’grel, ti), folios 1.b–291.a; vol. 221 (mdo ’grel, thi), folios 1.b–272.a; and vol. 222 (mdo ’grel, di), folios 1.b–175.a.
Yeshe Dé (ye shes sde). lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan (Laṅkāvatāranāmamahāyānasūtravṛttitathāgatahṛdayālaṃkāra), Toh 4019, Degé Tengyur vol. 224 (mdo ’grel, pi), folios 1.a–310.a.
Kalzang Dolma. (skal bzang sgrol ma). lo tsA ba ’gos chos grub dang khong gi ’gyur rtsom mdo mdzangs blun gyi lo tsA’i thabs rtsal skor la dpyad pa. In krung go’i bod kyi shes rig, vol. 77, pp. 31–53. Beijing: krung go’i bod kyi shes rig dus deb khang, 2007.
Lotsawa Gö Chödrup (lo tsā ba ’gos chos grub). In gangs ljongs skad gnyis smra ba du ma’i ’gyur byang blo gsal dga’ skyed, pp. 17–18. Xining: kan lho bod rigs rang skyong khul rtsom sgyur cu’u, 1983.
Ngawang Lobsang Choden (nga dbang blo bzang chos ldan). ’phags pa gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po’i ’don thabs cho ga (A Rite That is a Method for Reciting the Noble Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light), s.n. s.l. n.d.
Pema Karpo (pad ma dkar po). gser ’od dam pa nas gsungs pa’i bshags pa. In The Collected Works of Kun-mkhyen padma dkar po, vol. 9 (ta), pp. 519–24. Darjeeling: kargyu sungrab nyamso khang, 1973–74.
Bagchi, S., ed. Suvarṇaprabhāsasūtram. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute, 1967. Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon.
Banerjee, Radha. Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra. London: British Library, 2006. http://idp.bl.uk/downloads/GoldenLight.pdf.
Buswell Jr., Robert E., and Donald Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2014.
Di, Guan. “The Sanskrit Fragments Preserved in Arthur M. Sackler Museum of Peking University.” Annual Report of the Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, vol. XVII (Tokyo Soka University, 2014): 109–18.
Lewis, Todd T. “Contributions to the Study of Popular Buddhism: The Newar Buddhist Festival of Guṃlā Dharma.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 16, no. 2 (Winter 1993): 309–54.
Nanjio Bunyiu, Idzumi Hokei. The Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra: A Mahāyāna Text Called “The Golden Splendour.” Kyoto: The Eastern Buddhist Society, 1931.
Nobel, Johannes (1937). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Nach den Handschriften und mit Hilfe der tibetischen und chinesischen Übertragungen, Leipzig: Harrassowitz.
Nobel, Johannes (1944). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Die Tibetischen Überstzungen mit einem Wörterbuch. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Nobel, Johannes (1944, 1950). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Die Tibetischen Überstzungen mit einem Wörterbuch. 2 vols. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Radich, Michael (2014). “On the Sources, Style and Authorship of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarṇaprabhasa-sūtra T644 Ascribed to Paramārtha (Part 1).” Annual Report of the Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, vol. XVII: 207–44. Tokyo Soka University.
Radich, Michael (2016). “Tibetan Evidence for the Sources of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarṇa-prabhāsottama-sūtra T 664 A Ascribed to Paramārtha.” Buddhist Studies Review 32.2 (2015): 245–70. Sheffield, UK: Equinox Publishing.
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Tyomkin, E. N. “Unique Sanskrit Fragments of ‘The Sūtra of Golden Light’ in the Manuscript Collection of the St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies.” In Manuscripta Orientalia vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1995): 29–38. St. Petersburg: Russian Academy of Sciences.
Yuyama, Akira. “The Golden Light in Central Asia.” In Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2003 (Tokyo: Soka University, 2004) 3–32.
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BG Translation by Bao Gui 寶貴, titled 合部金光明經 (Taishō 664).
TWC Translation by Dharmakṣema, aka Tan Wuchen 曇無讖, titled 金光明經 (Taishō 663).
YJ Translation by Yijing 義淨, titled 金光明最勝王經 (Taishō 665).
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.
In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.
This is the longest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises thirty-one chapters and was translated into Tibetan primarily from Yijing’s Chinese translation in the early ninth century.
This sūtra was translated into English by Peter Alan Roberts. Ling Lung Chen, Wang Chipan, Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the copyeditor. With thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Zhang Da Da.
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and therefore it has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.
The work translated here is the Tibetan translation of the thirty-one-chapter version (Toh 555) of this sūtra. In the Tibetan canon, there are also the twenty-one-chapter (Toh 557) and twenty-nine-chapter (Toh 556) versions.
This sūtra’s principal chapter is the fourth, which describes the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum, hence the title of the sūtra. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.
Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Sthāvarā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune, better known in the present time as Lakṣmī; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.
This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 20 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.
There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. The longer versions of the sūtra also contain chapter 3 (not present in Toh 557), which describes the nature of the three kāyas, and chapter 6 (also not present in Toh 557), which describes the ten bodhisattva bhūmis. Chapters 9 and 10 teach the view of emptiness.
Toward the end there are two narratives describing previous lives of the Buddha. Chapters 24 and 25 describe the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter, these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess of the Bodhi tree objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.
The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 26, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.
As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath along with mantras to recite while bathing in order to achieve purification. This and the twenty-nine-chapter version also supply a number of dhāraṇīs to be recited in order to gain specific results.
One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvatamsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.
A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century
In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, that he leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts, two of which cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.
The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the kāyas, which are only in the twenty-nine-chapter and this version of the sūtra, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Zangpo, although nothing is known about the author.
In Newar Buddhism this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,” which are considered the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.
Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇabhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”
The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.
The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian. Its importance continues in recent times as is evident from new translations directly from Sanskrit into Mongolian, Oirat, and Japanese.
There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells,” and as a result of that reputation, toward the end of his reign, Juqu Mengxun became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated. Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.
The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.
The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and literary style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit. Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.
The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed from the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.
The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.
The twenty-one-chapter version does not list its translators in the colophon. The twenty-nine-chapter version was translated by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of the shorter version is present word for word in the twenty-nine-chapter version, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.
This thirty-one-chapter version is a translation of Yijing’s Chinese version made by Gö Chödrup in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.
There are some Tibetan texts in the Tengyur that were authored by Tibetan translators active in the ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood. Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teachings on the kāyas and buddha nature, and to its description of the bhūmis.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.
The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other—twenty times in all—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school. The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.
An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.
The twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557) and the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so that almost the entirety of the shorter version is present as an identical translation in the longer. In the version translated here (Toh 555), chapter 4 is the equivalent of chapters 3 and 4 in Toh 557. Chapters 9 and 10 are the equivalent of chapter 6, and chapters 11 and 12 are the equivalent of chapter 12. There are additional chapters in this version not found in Toh 557: chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28, 29, and 30.
Chapter 5 is almost entirely composed of the contents of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations (Toh 219), differing only in its introduction and conclusion. The twenty-nine-chapter version’s chapter 5 is identical in its translation to the sūtra as it appears in the Kangyur. Even where there are some minor differences between that chapter 5 and the sūtra in the Degé Kangyur version, those discrepancies do not exist in earlier Kangyurs. The translators of The Sūtra of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations were Jinamitra, Dānaśīla, and Yeshé Dé, and that translation appears to have been incorporated by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé into their translation of the twenty-nine-chapter Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. Chapter 6 primarily comprises The Sūtra of Akṣayamati’s Questions (Toh 89), without the introductory setting and with additional verses and an extra conclusion. That sūtra was translated by Silendrabodhi and Yeshé Dé, and their translation has been incorporated word-for-word into the translation of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé.
Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to the twenty-one-chapter version survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan version into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. There is no surviving Sanskrit for additional passages within the chapters or for the new chapters included in this thirty-one-chapter version.
In Tibetan, the twenty-nine-chapter version and this thirty-one-chapter version do appear to preserve passages that were lost from the twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557). For example, chapter 12 in Toh 557, “The Treatise on Kingship,” begins abruptly: “At that time …,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer versions—that sets the action in a distant past.
This thirty-one-chapter version was translated into Tibetan from Chinese. The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) is primarily due to the addition of two chapters (29 and 30).
In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced a translation of the twenty-one-chapter version in Tibetan.
The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha with a great assembly of bhikṣus, bodhisattvas, and deities. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.
In the town of Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. Ruciraketu goes to Vulture Peak and tells the Buddha what occurred. The buddhas of the four directions appear on Vulture Peak and request the Buddha to teach The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. The Buddha states that he continues to teach on Vulture Peak and only appears to pass into nirvāṇa.
A brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family named Vyākaraṇa asks to be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. A young man says to Vyākaraṇa that the Buddha will not pass away and there will never be relics. The Vyākaraṇa states that he knew this but made his request so that this truth would be revealed, and that the appearance of passing away and leaving relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.
Ruciraketu then asks why it is taught that buddhas pass away and leave relics. The Buddha states that this is a teaching with an implied meaning, and he then teaches on four sets of the true nirvāṇa’s ten qualities.
Then the four buddhas vanish, and Ruciraketu returns to his seat in the assembly.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. In response to a question from the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the Buddha describes the three kāyas or “bodies” that complete buddhahood comprises—the dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya. The nirmāṇakāya, or emanation body, is the manifestation of various kinds of bodies of individuals in accordance with the various situations of beings. The saṃbhogakāya, or enjoyment body, is the manifestation of perfect bodies that teach the ultimate truth to bodhisattvas. Neither of these kāyas, however, has ultimate reality, whereas the dharmakāya, or Dharma body, is the ultimate, featureless, true nature that is the basis of the other two kāyas, which appear spontaneously without thought and can be described as having both permanent and impermanent qualities. The Buddha gives various analogies to describe them. He also describes the progress to buddhahood through the ten bhūmis and the ten perfections.
Then Ākāśagarbha and others in the assembly describe four benefits that come to a land where The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught.
This chapter corresponds to chapters 3 and 4 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
In his home in Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come a number of verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.
He begins by describing the dream in verse and then repeats the verses he heard, which begin with a prayer for the verses to benefit all beings. Then there are verses for the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. Light rays radiate from the Buddha, bringing happiness to all beings in the lower existences. On seeing that light, Śakra and other deities come to the Buddha. When the deities are gathered, Śakra asks the Buddha how to confess previous bad actions. The Buddha gives a recitation that should be done three times over the course of the day and three times at night in order for the deities to free themselves of karmic obscurations and to attain whatever is aspired to—from rebirth in a good human family or various paradises to the attainment of ultimate wisdom. The Buddha explains that they should also recite the words of rejoicing in the good actions of others, requesting the buddhas in all worlds to teach the Dharma, and requesting them to not pass away. The Buddha states that this creates greater merit than any other kind of Dharma practice and that they should recite a dedication of their merit to the enlightenment of all beings.
Then the assembly promises to promulgate this sūtra, and Śakra states that this sūtra can bring an end to the obscurations of karma. In response, the Buddha describes a buddha in the distant past named Great Precious King Illuminator and a woman named Precious Merit Radiance. The Buddha goes on to detail the four benefits to a king, four benefits to his ministers, four benefits to mendicants, and four benefits to brahmins that result from this sūtra being taught in their land.
Then Śakra and the others state that the Dharma will last in the world only as long as this sūtra does, and the Buddha concurs and encourages its reading and practice.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra, and in the twenty-nine-chapter version the corresponding chapter is called “The Purification of the Bhūmis.”
Blazing Light Rays of Unhindered Traits of Lions asks the Buddha what is meant by the term bodhicitta, “the enlightenment mind,” because the mind is not said to be an object of perception in enlightenment.
The Buddha states that there is no reality to such designations but there are the ten stages of the development of bodhicitta through the ten perfections. The Buddha then describes ten qualities that each of these perfections possesses, and he describes what is meant by the term perfection.
He then describes the omens that precede each of the ten bhūmis, the reason for the names of each of those bhūmis, the two kinds of ignorance that obscure each of the ten bhūmis, the perfection attained on each bhūmi, and the samādhi that causes the development of each of the ten developments of bodhicitta.
The Buddha next gives the dhāraṇī mantra that is obtained on each bhūmi and explains what it protects against.
After this, the great Brahmarāja praises The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and the Buddha states that only those with great merit can hear it and that those who hear it will obtain the dhāraṇīs and gain the ultimate result. The assembly promises to gather where this sūtra is taught and to aid its teacher.
This is the equivalent of chapter 5 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
Speaking to a goddess, the Buddha repeats a praise of the buddhas in thirty-seven verses that was made by a king in the distant past who has now been reborn as that goddess.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha tells the bodhisattva Sukhavihāra that in order to make offerings to the buddhas of the past, present, and future, one should have the dhāraṇī called golden victory. Its practitioner should first recite a specific homage to certain buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then the dhāraṇī, which is the mother of all buddhas, will fulfill all wishes and bring protection. Fifteen days of practice in isolation should accomplish one’s wishes; otherwise, one should continue until one’s wishes are fulfilled.
This is the equivalent of chapter 6 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha recites verses describing emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes how he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The goddess Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light asks the Buddha about the equanimity of bodhisattva conduct. The Buddha teaches that the dharmadhātu, or Dharma realm, is beyond the extremes of existence and nonexistence. He explains that the five skandhas are neither separate from nor one with the dharmadhātu, otherwise everyone would already be enlightened or never be able to attain enlightenment. Therefore, bodhisattva conduct does not eliminate the relative and is never apart from the ultimate.
Then Brahmarāja asks Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light how she could possibly attain this state of enlightenment. She states that if she can do so, then all beings will become golden, and there will be a divine rain of flowers and divine music. This instantly occurs, and Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light’s body transforms, becoming identical to that of Brahmarāja. Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light describes to Brahmarāja how to practice bodhisattva conduct while knowing it has no reality, like a magical illusion.
Following this, the Buddha tells Brahmarāja to practice as Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light has. Brahmarāja and his entourage bow down to the now-male bodhisattva Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light. The Buddha prophesies that in the future Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light will be a buddha named Essence of the Glorious Blazing Jewel.
Five hundred thousand bhikṣus in the assembly attain the irreversible state, and the Buddha prophesies that in the distant future they will all become buddhas at the same time, all having the name King Who Is Ornamented by the Arrangement of Prayers.
The Buddha then tells Brahmarāja of the great power of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and of how he himself had practiced and taught it in his previous lives, and that if it vanishes so will all other sūtras.
All the devas promise to protect the sūtra, its teachers, and the land where it is taught.
This and the following chapter are the equivalent of chapter 7 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of this sūtra.
The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, describe the sūtra as overcoming all calamities and how it benefits them through its being taught. They describe themselves as protectors of the world and promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population.
The Four Mahārājas and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra, and then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha says to the bhikṣu Śāriputra that the dhāraṇī of nonattachment is like a mother to bodhisattvas and is practiced by them all. It has no location in any phenomenon or time and is without origination, but its possession leads to the highest enlightenment. Offering to it is the same as offering to a buddha. At Śāriputra’s request, the Buddha recites the dhāraṇī. He describes its great benefit and states that it is the mother of all tathāgatas.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha teaches Ānanda the names of lightning in the four principal directions. Those who know the names and write them down will be safe from lightning.
The Buddha then recites a Dravidian mantra. Avalokiteśvara recites another Dravidian mantra that protects from premature death. Vajrapāṇi recites a dhāraṇī and promises to protect those who write it out. Mahābrahmā then recites a mantra that will protect from premature death and end bad karma. Śakra recites a dhāraṇī vidyāmantra called vajraśani for freedom from danger and death. Then the Four Mahārājas recite a mantra that will protect from danger and death. Nāga kings recite the dhāraṇī called the wish-fulfilling jewel (which gives this chapter its name), which prevents all kinds of misfortune, and they recite another mantra that safeguards against poisons. The Buddha congratulates them all and everyone praises him.
The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skill. She also gives a recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune.
The Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. There then occurs a passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, where Sarasvatī recites verses describing how to perform a ritual for the fulfillment of wishes. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa praises Sarasvatī in two sets of verses, the first of which is not present in the twenty-one-chapter version. In another passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, Vyākaraṇa teaches a supplication to Sarasvatī for the purpose of attaining wisdom and eloquence, and the chapter concludes with the Buddha congratulating Vyākaraṇa and Sarasvatī.
The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Vaiḍūrya Golden Mountain Precious Flower Glorious Appearance’s Ocean of Qualities and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. This chapter is equivalent to most of chapter 9 on Śrī in Toh 557, with the last part here made into a separate chapter.
This chapter comprises the latter part of chapter 9 in the twenty-one-chapter version. It describes Śrī’s residence and teaches a mantra for her invocation with additional prayers not found in the twenty-one-chapter version. It also provides instructions for making offerings to her.
[B1] I pay homage to all the buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavat was within the profound, completely pure realm of the Dharma that is the field of activity of all the buddhas, dwelling at Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha together with a saṅgha of ten thousand times ninety-eight thousand great bhikṣus who were all without exception arhats, all of whom were purified like the king of elephants, all of whose defilements had ceased, all of whom were without kleśas, all of whom had liberated minds, all of whom had completely liberated wisdom, all of whom had done what had to be done, all of whom had put down their burden, all of whom had attained the goal, all of whom had ended engagement with existence, all of whom had attained supreme sublime power, all of whom maintained pure correct conduct, all of whom were adorned by skill in method and wisdom, all of whom possessed the eight liberations, and all of whom had reached the farther shore.
Their names were Venerable Ājñātakauṇḍinya, Venerable Aśvajit, Venerable Vāṣpa, Venerable Mahānāman, Venerable Bhadrika, Venerable Mahākāśyapa, Venerable Uruvilvakāśyapa, Venerable Gayākāśyapa, Venerable Nadīkāśyapa, Venerable Śāriputra, Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, and so on, who were all, apart from Venerable Ānanda, a great saṅgha of śrāvakas, who had arisen from their afternoon samādhi and come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
A quintillion bodhisattva mahāsattvas had also gathered there. They all had great, brilliant, powerful might, like the great king of the nāgas; had great fame; had nobility; had pure generosity and correct conduct; gave pure offerings and service; had for countless kalpas practiced patience, diligence, and meditation that transcended all; remained perfectly in mindfulness; had opened the door to wisdom; delighted in yoga, methods, and powers; possessed the higher cognitions and the power of mental retention; possessed unceasing eloquence; had eliminated all kleśas; had cut through the bondage of the kleśas; would soon possess omniscient wisdom; had defeated Māra and Māra’s armies; beat the drum of the Dharma; defeated all tīrthikas and brought them to correct thought; turned the wheel of the Dharma; liberated devas and humans; accomplished the adornment of the buddha realms in the ten directions; benefited beings in the six existences; always had a mind of great love and great compassion; had great invincible strength; went to all buddha realms and made offerings; did not pass into nirvāṇa; had made the great prayer of unceasing commitment until the end of all future kalpas; had developed pure, very profound causes in the presence of many buddhas; had attained quiescence with regard to the birthlessness of the phenomena of the three times; had transcended the field of activity of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; were skilled in engaging in benefiting the world; taught extensively the array of the Dharma taught with implied meanings by the great teachers; were skilled in the profound, pure characteristics of emptiness; and had completely eliminated doubts.
Among them were those named the bodhisattva Turning Wheel of Unobscured Dharma, the bodhisattva Wheel of Dharma Thoroughly Encircling Mind Generation, the bodhisattva Nityodyukta, the bodhisattva Aparikheda, the bodhisattva Maitreya, the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva Dharaṇīśvararāja, the bodhisattva Fearless Ornament King, the bodhisattva King of Mount Sumeru, the bodhisattva Profound Ocean King, the bodhisattva Ratnadhvaja, the bodhisattva Great Precious Victory Banner, the bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the bodhisattva Precious Hand Blessing, the bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi, the bodhisattva Ratibala, the bodhisattva Dharmabala, the bodhisattva Great Brilliant Ornament, the bodhisattva Great Golden Radiance Ornament, the bodhisattva Viśuddhaśīla, the bodhisattva Always Concentrated, the bodhisattva Viśuddhaprajñā, the bodhisattva Ascetic Effort, the bodhisattva Sky-Like Thought, the bodhisattva Great Prayer Completely Unending, the bodhisattva Giving Medicine, the bodhisattva Dispeller of the Affliction’s Disease, the bodhisattva Bhaiṣajyarāja, the bodhisattva Noble Joy, the bodhisattva Previously Prophesized Attainment, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Pure Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Dharma Protector, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Renowned Joy, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Limitless Renown, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Lion’s Roar, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Expounder Great King’s Sound, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Good Fortune, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Precious Qualities, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Solar Essence, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Moon’s Essence, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Star Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Fire Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Lightning Flash, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Thunder, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Wisdom Rain Thoroughly Equal, the bodhisattva King of Great Cloud’s Rain Thoroughly Purified, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Flower Tree King, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Sweet Scent of Blue Lotus, the bodhisattva Precious Cloud Sandalwood Body Completely Cool, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Eradicating Darkness, and the bodhisattva Great Cloud Eradicating Deceptive Views. That entourage of bodhisattva mahāsattvas had in the afternoon arisen from their individual afternoon samādhis and come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were eight hundred thousand times a hundred thousand Licchavī youths. Among them were those named Kumāra Lion’s Radiance, Kumāra Siṃhamati, Kumāra Dharmadatta, Kumāra Power Bestower, Kumāra Mahāprabha, Kumāra Great Glorious One, Kumāra Protected by the Buddha, Kumāra Protected by the Dharma, Kumāra Protected by the Saṅgha, Kumāra Protected by Vajras, Kumāra Protected by the Sky, Kumāra Sky Uttering Sound, Kumāra Ratnagarbha, and Kumāra Essence of Supreme Auspiciousness. They were supreme among all those youths residing in the highest enlightenment, each having found faith in the Mahāyāna. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and sat to one side.
Also gathered there were 42,000 devas. The chief among these devas were named Deva Priyadarśana, Deva Pramudita, Deva Sūryaprabha, Deva Moon’s Uṣṇīṣa, Deva Spatial Intellect Completely Pure, Deva Abandoned Affliction, and Deva Maṅgala. They had made the prayer of great commitment to protect the Mahāyāna Dharma, and all those lineage holders who prevented the Dharma from ceasing in the afternoon had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were 28,000 nāga kings. The chief among these nāga kings were named Nāga King Padma, Nāga King Elapatra, Nāga King Mahābala, Nāga King Mahāghoṣa, Nāga King Small Waves, Nāga King Holder of Water’s Cause, Nāga King Golden Face, and Nāga King Wish-Fulfilling. They delighted in protecting, holding, and receiving the Mahāyāna Dharma; they aspired to, rejoiced in, and protected and sustained very profound contemplation. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were an entourage of 36,000 yakṣas. The principal ones among them, led by King Virūpākṣa, were Yakṣa Amra, Yakṣa Holder of Amra, Yakṣa Lotus Radiance, Yakṣa Lotus Face, Yakṣa Bhṛkuti, Yakṣa Frightful Direct Teacher, Yakṣa Bhūmikampa, and Yakṣa Swallower of Foods, all of whom were the chief among those yakṣas. They had developed a mind of faith in the Dharma of the Tathāgata; they had developed an unflagging motivation to protect and guard the Dharma. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there was an entourage of 49,000 garuḍas. The principal one among them was the garuḍa king Gandhahastiprabhāvarāja. There was also an entourage of gandharvas; an entourage of asuras; an entourage of kinnaras; an entourage of kumbhāṇḍas; an entourage of mahoragas; the devas of mountains, forests, rivers, and seas; ṛṣis and the kings of all great lands; the royal courts, queens, attendants, boys, girls, devas, and other people who had developed faith, and so on—all had gathered together and arrived there, and all had the commitment to read, recite, possess, keep, write out, and promulgate, maintain, and protect this unsurpassable Mahāyāna Dharma. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
In that way, all those śrāvakas, bodhisattvas, devas, humans, nāgas, yakṣas, and so on had gathered, each having developed the motivation to venerate and serve; with palms together in homage and with unblinking eyes, they gazed without wavering upon the Bhagavat and aspired to hear the Dharma.
Then the Bhagavat, during that afternoon, arose from samādhi, looked upon the assembly of followers, and recited these verses:
This concludes “The Introduction,” the first chapter of “The Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light.”
At that time, there dwelled in the great city of Rājagṛha a bodhisattva mahāsattva by the name of Ruciraketu. He had planted good roots by serving and attending upon countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of buddhas.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu was staying alone in solitude then, and he was thinking, “Through what causes and through what conditions does the Bhagavat Śākyamuni have such a short lifespan of eighty years?”
He also thought, “The Bhagavat has said, ‘There are two causes and two conditions for a long life. What are those two? Not killing beings and giving food and drink to others.’ The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has forsaken killing beings and has practiced the path of the ten good actions for many countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of eons. He has always given food and drink to all hungry beings, even satisfying them with his own flesh, blood, bones, legs, and so on, not to mention any other kind of food and drink.”
When that bodhisattva was thinking that about the Bhagavat, through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat his house became instantly vast and immense, decorated and clean, adorned by blue beryls and various jewels, so that it was like a buddha realm that was permeated by the wafting, sublime scents of supreme perfumes that transcended the perfumes of the devas.
In the four directions there spontaneously appeared perfect lion thrones made of the four sublime jewels, covered by divine precious cloth. On those thrones were sublime lotuses adorned by various jewels, and their sizes were in proportion to those of the tathāgatas.
Upon those lotuses there were four tathāgatas: Akṣobhya of the east, Ratnaketu of the south, Amitāyus of the west, and Dundubhisvara of the north. Those tathāgatas each sat cross-legged on their individual thrones and radiated light rays that spread through and illuminated the great city of Rājagṛha, the trichiliocosm world realm, and throughout as many buddha realms in the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. A rain of divine flowers fell, and the sound of divine music played. At that time, through the power of the Bhagavat’s blessing, all beings in this trichiliocosm world realm experienced perfect bliss and were free of all distress. Those who did not have all their limbs became complete. The blind saw; the deaf heard; the mute spoke; the stupid became wise; those who were disturbed regained their minds; the unclothed became clothed; those who were inferior and derided became respected by others; those with dirty bodies became clean; and extremely wonderful, beneficial things such as had never been seen before appeared in this world realm.
On seeing the four tathāgatas and those wonderful, amazing things, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu was delighted and overjoyed. He placed his palms together in homage and with a one-pointed mind gazed upon the superior features of the tathāgatas.
He also wondered why the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, who possesses limitless qualities, has only the lifespan he has, thinking, “Why does the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, even though he possesses limitless qualities, have such a short life of only eighty years?”
The four bhagavats then said to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble one, except for we who have unsurpassable omniscience, we do not see any brahmās, māras, mendicants, brahmins, humans, or nonhumans in this world with its devas who can know or calculate the end of the lifespan of the Tathāgata.”
When those bhagavats taught the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat, the devas in the desire and form realms, the nāgas, the yakṣas, the gandharvas, the asuras, the garuḍas, the kinnaras, the mahoragas, and the many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of assembled bodhisattvas gathered and came to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu’s house.
Then those four bhagavats within that vast assembly recited these verses in order to teach the length of the lifespan of the Tathāgata Śākyamuni:
Then the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, having heard from those four tathāgatas the teaching on the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, asked those bhagavats, “Why is it that the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, the Tathāgata, manifests such a short lifespan?”
The four bhagavats replied to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble one, the Bhagavat Śākyamuni has come into the world at the time of the five degenerations. Humans have a hundred-year lifespan, an inferior nature, few and feeble good roots, and no aspiration. Therefore, most of those beings have the view that there is a self, the view that there is an individual, the view that there is a being and a soul, and the view that there is a spirit; they hold erroneous views, the view that there is ‘me’ and ‘mine,’ the views of eternalism and nihilism, and so on. Therefore, the Tathāgata Śākyamuni manifests such a short lifespan so as to benefit many beings and many tīrthikas, so that they will develop true knowledge and quickly attain the highest, most complete enlightenment.
“Moreover, noble one, if those beings see the Tathāgata passing into nirvāṇa, that will cause them to perceive him as being extremely difficult to see. They will perceive misery, suffering, and so on, and they will quickly obtain, possess, carry, read, chant, comprehend, and teach others the teachings of the sūtras spoken by the Buddha Bhagavat and they will not criticize them. That is why the Tathāgata manifests such a short lifespan.
“Why is that? If beings saw that the Tathāgata did not pass into nirvāṇa, they would not reverently attend upon him. They would not perceive him as extremely difficult to meet, and they would not obtain, possess, read, chant, comprehend, and teach others the profound sūtras spoken by the Tathāgata. Why is that? They would have no reverence because they would always see the Buddha.
“As an analogy, noble one, if a man saw that his father had many jewels and increasing wealth, he would not perceive that wealth as wonderful or a rare sight. Why is that? It is because he would perceive his father’s wealth to be permanent.
“Noble one, in the same way, if these many beings saw that the Bhagavat never passed into nirvāṇa, they would not perceive him as wonderful and difficult to see. Why would that be? Because they would see him as permanent.
“As another analogy, noble one, if a man who had poor parents devoid of wealth went to a king’s palace or a great minister’s mansion and saw it filled with various precious treasuries and wealth, he would perceive this as marvelous and difficult to encounter. Then that poor man would commence on various methods in order to acquire wealth and would do so with diligence and without idleness. Why would he do that? He would do so in order to leave behind poverty and destitution and to experience the enjoyment of happiness.
“In the same way, noble one, if those many beings see that the Tathāgata passes into nirvāṇa, they will perceive him as difficult to see, they will develop the perception of him as difficult to see, and so on, up to the perception of misery, suffering, and so on. Moreover, they will think, ‘The tathāgatas appear in the world only after countless, measureless eons have passed. Like fig tree flowers, they hardly ever appear, and then just one time.’ Thus those many beings will think of him as wonderful and perceive him as difficult to see. Then if they see the Tathāgata, they will have veneration and delight, and if they hear the true Dharma teaching, they will perceive it as being the true teaching and they will correctly hold all the sūtras and not criticize them.
“Therefore, noble one, because of those causes and conditions, the Tathāgata does not remain long in the world but passes into nirvāṇa.
“Noble one, the tathāgatas ripen beings through knowing such skillful methods.”
Then, having spoken, the four tathāgatas vanished.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then went to Vulture Peak Mountain together with countless hundreds of thousands of bodhisattvas and the countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of other beings. They arrived before the omniscient Tathāgata Śākyamuni and bowed their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat and sat to one side.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then described in detail what had occurred.
At that time, the four tathāgatas came to where the Bhagavat Śākyamuni was on Vulture Peak Mountain, sat upon the thrones in their individual directions, and said to their bodhisattva attendants, “Noble ones, go to the Bhagavat Śākyamuni and repeat to him these words of ours, asking after his health: ‘Are you not a little unwell? Are you not in some pain? Whether you are standing or sitting, in all your activity, are you in good health?’ Also say this to him: ‘If the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, in order to benefit beings, to dispel the obstacle of famine, and to bring happiness, were to teach today The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, the meaning of the extremely profound Dharma, that would be excellent, excellent! And we also would rejoice in it.’ ”
Those attendants then approached the Bhagavat Śākyamuni from their different directions, bowed their heads to his feet, arranged themselves in a particular place, and in unison made this request to the Bhagavat: “Those teachers of devas and humans, with their limitless voices, inquired after your health, asking, ‘Are you not a little unwell? Are you not in some pain? Whether you are standing or sitting, in all your activity, are you in good health?’ They also said, ‘If the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, in order to benefit beings, to dispel the obstacle of famine, and to bring happiness, were to teach today The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, the meaning of the extremely profound Dharma, that would be excellent, excellent!’ ”
Then the tathāgata arhat samyaksaṃbuddha Śākyamuni said to those bodhisattva attendants, “It is excellent, excellent that those four tathāgatas have requested the true Dharma in order to bring benefit and happiness to all beings!”
At that time, the Bhagavat then spoke these verses:
At that time, in that great assembly, there was a brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa. Together with a retinue of countless hundreds of thousands of brahmins, he had made offerings to the Bhagavat. On hearing the Tathāgata speak the words “passing into nirvāṇa,” he shed tears. Weeping, he bowed down to the Bhagavat’s feet and said to the Bhagavat, “If the Tathāgata truly has love for and great compassion for beings, through your kindness benefit them and bring them happiness. You are like our mother and father, and therefore there is no one else who is like that. You are a protector and refuge for the whole world, and therefore you are as bright and pure as the full moon. You bring illumination with your great wisdom, and therefore you are like the rising sun. You look upon all beings equally, with an affection that is no different from that for Rāhula. I pray that the Bhagavat will give me permission to make a prayer.”
Then the Bhagavat remained silent. Through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat, a Licchavī youth who was present there, by the name of Seen as Delightful by All Beings, said to the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, “O great brahmin, what kind of prayer are you intent on receiving today from the Bhagavat? I will give it to you.”
“O young man,” replied the brahmin, “I wish to make offerings to the unsurpassable Bhagavat, and therefore today I am requesting from the Tathāgata a relic the size of a mustard seed. Why is that? I have heard that in the past, when a noble man or noble woman had obtained a relic the size of a mustard seed and with veneration honored it and made offerings to it, that individual was reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise and became Śakra, the lord of the devas.”
The youth then said to the brahmin, “If you wish to be reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise and enjoy the perfect ripening of karma, then you should listen, with single-pointed mind, to The Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light. This sūtra is supreme among all sūtras, and therefore it is difficult to know and to penetrate. Therefore, the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are unable to comprehend it. This sūtra gives rise to the limitless ripening of the results of merit and accomplishes that until the attainment of the highest enlightenment. Today I have taught you just a little portion of that subject.”
“Well done, young man,” replied the brahmin. “This Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light is very profound and supreme. It is difficult to know, difficult to penetrate, and therefore even the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas will not comprehend it. Therefore, it goes without saying that we, low-class people from the borderlands, with little, limited knowledge, will not understand it. That is why today I seek a relic of the Tathāgata that is the size of a mustard seed. I will take it to my land, place it in a precious casket, and make offerings to it and honor it with veneration. Then, when I have passed away, I will be Śakra, the lord of the devas, and will continually experience happiness. For my sake, why don’t you make a prayer today to the one with wisdom and virtuous conduct?”
Just then, the youth spoke these verses to the brahmin:
Having heard those verses, the brahmin Dharma master Vyākaraṇa then replied in verse to Seen as Delightful by All Beings, the Licchavī youth:
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.
In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.
This is the longest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises thirty-one chapters and was translated into Tibetan primarily from Yijing’s Chinese translation in the early ninth century.
This sūtra was translated into English by Peter Alan Roberts. Ling Lung Chen, Wang Chipan, Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the copyeditor. With thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Zhang Da Da.
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and therefore it has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.
The work translated here is the Tibetan translation of the thirty-one-chapter version (Toh 555) of this sūtra. In the Tibetan canon, there are also the twenty-one-chapter (Toh 557) and twenty-nine-chapter (Toh 556) versions.
This sūtra’s principal chapter is the fourth, which describes the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum, hence the title of the sūtra. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.
Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Sthāvarā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune, better known in the present time as Lakṣmī; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.
This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 20 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.
There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. The longer versions of the sūtra also contain chapter 3 (not present in Toh 557), which describes the nature of the three kāyas, and chapter 6 (also not present in Toh 557), which describes the ten bodhisattva bhūmis. Chapters 9 and 10 teach the view of emptiness.
Toward the end there are two narratives describing previous lives of the Buddha. Chapters 24 and 25 describe the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter, these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess of the Bodhi tree objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.
The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 26, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.
As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath along with mantras to recite while bathing in order to achieve purification. This and the twenty-nine-chapter version also supply a number of dhāraṇīs to be recited in order to gain specific results.
One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvatamsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.
A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century
In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, that he leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts, two of which cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.
The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the kāyas, which are only in the twenty-nine-chapter and this version of the sūtra, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Zangpo, although nothing is known about the author.
In Newar Buddhism this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,” which are considered the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.
Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇabhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”
The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.
The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian. Its importance continues in recent times as is evident from new translations directly from Sanskrit into Mongolian, Oirat, and Japanese.
There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells,” and as a result of that reputation, toward the end of his reign, Juqu Mengxun became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated. Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.
The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.
The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and literary style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit. Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.
The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed from the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.
The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.
The twenty-one-chapter version does not list its translators in the colophon. The twenty-nine-chapter version was translated by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of the shorter version is present word for word in the twenty-nine-chapter version, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.
This thirty-one-chapter version is a translation of Yijing’s Chinese version made by Gö Chödrup in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.
There are some Tibetan texts in the Tengyur that were authored by Tibetan translators active in the ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood. Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teachings on the kāyas and buddha nature, and to its description of the bhūmis.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.
The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other—twenty times in all—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school. The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.
An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.
The twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557) and the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so that almost the entirety of the shorter version is present as an identical translation in the longer. In the version translated here (Toh 555), chapter 4 is the equivalent of chapters 3 and 4 in Toh 557. Chapters 9 and 10 are the equivalent of chapter 6, and chapters 11 and 12 are the equivalent of chapter 12. There are additional chapters in this version not found in Toh 557: chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28, 29, and 30.
Chapter 5 is almost entirely composed of the contents of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations (Toh 219), differing only in its introduction and conclusion. The twenty-nine-chapter version’s chapter 5 is identical in its translation to the sūtra as it appears in the Kangyur. Even where there are some minor differences between that chapter 5 and the sūtra in the Degé Kangyur version, those discrepancies do not exist in earlier Kangyurs. The translators of The Sūtra of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations were Jinamitra, Dānaśīla, and Yeshé Dé, and that translation appears to have been incorporated by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé into their translation of the twenty-nine-chapter Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. Chapter 6 primarily comprises The Sūtra of Akṣayamati’s Questions (Toh 89), without the introductory setting and with additional verses and an extra conclusion. That sūtra was translated by Silendrabodhi and Yeshé Dé, and their translation has been incorporated word-for-word into the translation of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé.
Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to the twenty-one-chapter version survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan version into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. There is no surviving Sanskrit for additional passages within the chapters or for the new chapters included in this thirty-one-chapter version.
In Tibetan, the twenty-nine-chapter version and this thirty-one-chapter version do appear to preserve passages that were lost from the twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557). For example, chapter 12 in Toh 557, “The Treatise on Kingship,” begins abruptly: “At that time …,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer versions—that sets the action in a distant past.
This thirty-one-chapter version was translated into Tibetan from Chinese. The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) is primarily due to the addition of two chapters (29 and 30).
In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced a translation of the twenty-one-chapter version in Tibetan.
The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha with a great assembly of bhikṣus, bodhisattvas, and deities. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.
In the town of Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. Ruciraketu goes to Vulture Peak and tells the Buddha what occurred. The buddhas of the four directions appear on Vulture Peak and request the Buddha to teach The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. The Buddha states that he continues to teach on Vulture Peak and only appears to pass into nirvāṇa.
A brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family named Vyākaraṇa asks to be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. A young man says to Vyākaraṇa that the Buddha will not pass away and there will never be relics. The Vyākaraṇa states that he knew this but made his request so that this truth would be revealed, and that the appearance of passing away and leaving relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.
Ruciraketu then asks why it is taught that buddhas pass away and leave relics. The Buddha states that this is a teaching with an implied meaning, and he then teaches on four sets of the true nirvāṇa’s ten qualities.
Then the four buddhas vanish, and Ruciraketu returns to his seat in the assembly.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. In response to a question from the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the Buddha describes the three kāyas or “bodies” that complete buddhahood comprises—the dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya. The nirmāṇakāya, or emanation body, is the manifestation of various kinds of bodies of individuals in accordance with the various situations of beings. The saṃbhogakāya, or enjoyment body, is the manifestation of perfect bodies that teach the ultimate truth to bodhisattvas. Neither of these kāyas, however, has ultimate reality, whereas the dharmakāya, or Dharma body, is the ultimate, featureless, true nature that is the basis of the other two kāyas, which appear spontaneously without thought and can be described as having both permanent and impermanent qualities. The Buddha gives various analogies to describe them. He also describes the progress to buddhahood through the ten bhūmis and the ten perfections.
Then Ākāśagarbha and others in the assembly describe four benefits that come to a land where The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught.
This chapter corresponds to chapters 3 and 4 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
In his home in Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come a number of verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.
He begins by describing the dream in verse and then repeats the verses he heard, which begin with a prayer for the verses to benefit all beings. Then there are verses for the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. Light rays radiate from the Buddha, bringing happiness to all beings in the lower existences. On seeing that light, Śakra and other deities come to the Buddha. When the deities are gathered, Śakra asks the Buddha how to confess previous bad actions. The Buddha gives a recitation that should be done three times over the course of the day and three times at night in order for the deities to free themselves of karmic obscurations and to attain whatever is aspired to—from rebirth in a good human family or various paradises to the attainment of ultimate wisdom. The Buddha explains that they should also recite the words of rejoicing in the good actions of others, requesting the buddhas in all worlds to teach the Dharma, and requesting them to not pass away. The Buddha states that this creates greater merit than any other kind of Dharma practice and that they should recite a dedication of their merit to the enlightenment of all beings.
Then the assembly promises to promulgate this sūtra, and Śakra states that this sūtra can bring an end to the obscurations of karma. In response, the Buddha describes a buddha in the distant past named Great Precious King Illuminator and a woman named Precious Merit Radiance. The Buddha goes on to detail the four benefits to a king, four benefits to his ministers, four benefits to mendicants, and four benefits to brahmins that result from this sūtra being taught in their land.
Then Śakra and the others state that the Dharma will last in the world only as long as this sūtra does, and the Buddha concurs and encourages its reading and practice.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra, and in the twenty-nine-chapter version the corresponding chapter is called “The Purification of the Bhūmis.”
Blazing Light Rays of Unhindered Traits of Lions asks the Buddha what is meant by the term bodhicitta, “the enlightenment mind,” because the mind is not said to be an object of perception in enlightenment.
The Buddha states that there is no reality to such designations but there are the ten stages of the development of bodhicitta through the ten perfections. The Buddha then describes ten qualities that each of these perfections possesses, and he describes what is meant by the term perfection.
He then describes the omens that precede each of the ten bhūmis, the reason for the names of each of those bhūmis, the two kinds of ignorance that obscure each of the ten bhūmis, the perfection attained on each bhūmi, and the samādhi that causes the development of each of the ten developments of bodhicitta.
The Buddha next gives the dhāraṇī mantra that is obtained on each bhūmi and explains what it protects against.
After this, the great Brahmarāja praises The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and the Buddha states that only those with great merit can hear it and that those who hear it will obtain the dhāraṇīs and gain the ultimate result. The assembly promises to gather where this sūtra is taught and to aid its teacher.
This is the equivalent of chapter 5 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
Speaking to a goddess, the Buddha repeats a praise of the buddhas in thirty-seven verses that was made by a king in the distant past who has now been reborn as that goddess.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha tells the bodhisattva Sukhavihāra that in order to make offerings to the buddhas of the past, present, and future, one should have the dhāraṇī called golden victory. Its practitioner should first recite a specific homage to certain buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then the dhāraṇī, which is the mother of all buddhas, will fulfill all wishes and bring protection. Fifteen days of practice in isolation should accomplish one’s wishes; otherwise, one should continue until one’s wishes are fulfilled.
This is the equivalent of chapter 6 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha recites verses describing emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes how he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The goddess Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light asks the Buddha about the equanimity of bodhisattva conduct. The Buddha teaches that the dharmadhātu, or Dharma realm, is beyond the extremes of existence and nonexistence. He explains that the five skandhas are neither separate from nor one with the dharmadhātu, otherwise everyone would already be enlightened or never be able to attain enlightenment. Therefore, bodhisattva conduct does not eliminate the relative and is never apart from the ultimate.
Then Brahmarāja asks Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light how she could possibly attain this state of enlightenment. She states that if she can do so, then all beings will become golden, and there will be a divine rain of flowers and divine music. This instantly occurs, and Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light’s body transforms, becoming identical to that of Brahmarāja. Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light describes to Brahmarāja how to practice bodhisattva conduct while knowing it has no reality, like a magical illusion.
Following this, the Buddha tells Brahmarāja to practice as Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light has. Brahmarāja and his entourage bow down to the now-male bodhisattva Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light. The Buddha prophesies that in the future Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light will be a buddha named Essence of the Glorious Blazing Jewel.
Five hundred thousand bhikṣus in the assembly attain the irreversible state, and the Buddha prophesies that in the distant future they will all become buddhas at the same time, all having the name King Who Is Ornamented by the Arrangement of Prayers.
The Buddha then tells Brahmarāja of the great power of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and of how he himself had practiced and taught it in his previous lives, and that if it vanishes so will all other sūtras.
All the devas promise to protect the sūtra, its teachers, and the land where it is taught.
This and the following chapter are the equivalent of chapter 7 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of this sūtra.
The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, describe the sūtra as overcoming all calamities and how it benefits them through its being taught. They describe themselves as protectors of the world and promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population.
The Four Mahārājas and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra, and then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha says to the bhikṣu Śāriputra that the dhāraṇī of nonattachment is like a mother to bodhisattvas and is practiced by them all. It has no location in any phenomenon or time and is without origination, but its possession leads to the highest enlightenment. Offering to it is the same as offering to a buddha. At Śāriputra’s request, the Buddha recites the dhāraṇī. He describes its great benefit and states that it is the mother of all tathāgatas.
This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.
The Buddha teaches Ānanda the names of lightning in the four principal directions. Those who know the names and write them down will be safe from lightning.
The Buddha then recites a Dravidian mantra. Avalokiteśvara recites another Dravidian mantra that protects from premature death. Vajrapāṇi recites a dhāraṇī and promises to protect those who write it out. Mahābrahmā then recites a mantra that will protect from premature death and end bad karma. Śakra recites a dhāraṇī vidyāmantra called vajraśani for freedom from danger and death. Then the Four Mahārājas recite a mantra that will protect from danger and death. Nāga kings recite the dhāraṇī called the wish-fulfilling jewel (which gives this chapter its name), which prevents all kinds of misfortune, and they recite another mantra that safeguards against poisons. The Buddha congratulates them all and everyone praises him.
The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skill. She also gives a recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune.
The Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. There then occurs a passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, where Sarasvatī recites verses describing how to perform a ritual for the fulfillment of wishes. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa praises Sarasvatī in two sets of verses, the first of which is not present in the twenty-one-chapter version. In another passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, Vyākaraṇa teaches a supplication to Sarasvatī for the purpose of attaining wisdom and eloquence, and the chapter concludes with the Buddha congratulating Vyākaraṇa and Sarasvatī.
The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Vaiḍūrya Golden Mountain Precious Flower Glorious Appearance’s Ocean of Qualities and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. This chapter is equivalent to most of chapter 9 on Śrī in Toh 557, with the last part here made into a separate chapter.
This chapter comprises the latter part of chapter 9 in the twenty-one-chapter version. It describes Śrī’s residence and teaches a mantra for her invocation with additional prayers not found in the twenty-one-chapter version. It also provides instructions for making offerings to her.
[B1] I pay homage to all the buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavat was within the profound, completely pure realm of the Dharma that is the field of activity of all the buddhas, dwelling at Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha together with a saṅgha of ten thousand times ninety-eight thousand great bhikṣus who were all without exception arhats, all of whom were purified like the king of elephants, all of whose defilements had ceased, all of whom were without kleśas, all of whom had liberated minds, all of whom had completely liberated wisdom, all of whom had done what had to be done, all of whom had put down their burden, all of whom had attained the goal, all of whom had ended engagement with existence, all of whom had attained supreme sublime power, all of whom maintained pure correct conduct, all of whom were adorned by skill in method and wisdom, all of whom possessed the eight liberations, and all of whom had reached the farther shore.
Their names were Venerable Ājñātakauṇḍinya, Venerable Aśvajit, Venerable Vāṣpa, Venerable Mahānāman, Venerable Bhadrika, Venerable Mahākāśyapa, Venerable Uruvilvakāśyapa, Venerable Gayākāśyapa, Venerable Nadīkāśyapa, Venerable Śāriputra, Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, and so on, who were all, apart from Venerable Ānanda, a great saṅgha of śrāvakas, who had arisen from their afternoon samādhi and come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
A quintillion bodhisattva mahāsattvas had also gathered there. They all had great, brilliant, powerful might, like the great king of the nāgas; had great fame; had nobility; had pure generosity and correct conduct; gave pure offerings and service; had for countless kalpas practiced patience, diligence, and meditation that transcended all; remained perfectly in mindfulness; had opened the door to wisdom; delighted in yoga, methods, and powers; possessed the higher cognitions and the power of mental retention; possessed unceasing eloquence; had eliminated all kleśas; had cut through the bondage of the kleśas; would soon possess omniscient wisdom; had defeated Māra and Māra’s armies; beat the drum of the Dharma; defeated all tīrthikas and brought them to correct thought; turned the wheel of the Dharma; liberated devas and humans; accomplished the adornment of the buddha realms in the ten directions; benefited beings in the six existences; always had a mind of great love and great compassion; had great invincible strength; went to all buddha realms and made offerings; did not pass into nirvāṇa; had made the great prayer of unceasing commitment until the end of all future kalpas; had developed pure, very profound causes in the presence of many buddhas; had attained quiescence with regard to the birthlessness of the phenomena of the three times; had transcended the field of activity of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; were skilled in engaging in benefiting the world; taught extensively the array of the Dharma taught with implied meanings by the great teachers; were skilled in the profound, pure characteristics of emptiness; and had completely eliminated doubts.
Among them were those named the bodhisattva Turning Wheel of Unobscured Dharma, the bodhisattva Wheel of Dharma Thoroughly Encircling Mind Generation, the bodhisattva Nityodyukta, the bodhisattva Aparikheda, the bodhisattva Maitreya, the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva Dharaṇīśvararāja, the bodhisattva Fearless Ornament King, the bodhisattva King of Mount Sumeru, the bodhisattva Profound Ocean King, the bodhisattva Ratnadhvaja, the bodhisattva Great Precious Victory Banner, the bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the bodhisattva Precious Hand Blessing, the bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi, the bodhisattva Ratibala, the bodhisattva Dharmabala, the bodhisattva Great Brilliant Ornament, the bodhisattva Great Golden Radiance Ornament, the bodhisattva Viśuddhaśīla, the bodhisattva Always Concentrated, the bodhisattva Viśuddhaprajñā, the bodhisattva Ascetic Effort, the bodhisattva Sky-Like Thought, the bodhisattva Great Prayer Completely Unending, the bodhisattva Giving Medicine, the bodhisattva Dispeller of the Affliction’s Disease, the bodhisattva Bhaiṣajyarāja, the bodhisattva Noble Joy, the bodhisattva Previously Prophesized Attainment, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Pure Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Dharma Protector, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Renowned Joy, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Limitless Renown, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Lion’s Roar, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Expounder Great King’s Sound, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Good Fortune, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Precious Qualities, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Solar Essence, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Moon’s Essence, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Star Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Fire Light, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Lightning Flash, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Thunder, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Wisdom Rain Thoroughly Equal, the bodhisattva King of Great Cloud’s Rain Thoroughly Purified, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Flower Tree King, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Sweet Scent of Blue Lotus, the bodhisattva Precious Cloud Sandalwood Body Completely Cool, the bodhisattva Great Cloud Eradicating Darkness, and the bodhisattva Great Cloud Eradicating Deceptive Views. That entourage of bodhisattva mahāsattvas had in the afternoon arisen from their individual afternoon samādhis and come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were eight hundred thousand times a hundred thousand Licchavī youths. Among them were those named Kumāra Lion’s Radiance, Kumāra Siṃhamati, Kumāra Dharmadatta, Kumāra Power Bestower, Kumāra Mahāprabha, Kumāra Great Glorious One, Kumāra Protected by the Buddha, Kumāra Protected by the Dharma, Kumāra Protected by the Saṅgha, Kumāra Protected by Vajras, Kumāra Protected by the Sky, Kumāra Sky Uttering Sound, Kumāra Ratnagarbha, and Kumāra Essence of Supreme Auspiciousness. They were supreme among all those youths residing in the highest enlightenment, each having found faith in the Mahāyāna. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and sat to one side.
Also gathered there were 42,000 devas. The chief among these devas were named Deva Priyadarśana, Deva Pramudita, Deva Sūryaprabha, Deva Moon’s Uṣṇīṣa, Deva Spatial Intellect Completely Pure, Deva Abandoned Affliction, and Deva Maṅgala. They had made the prayer of great commitment to protect the Mahāyāna Dharma, and all those lineage holders who prevented the Dharma from ceasing in the afternoon had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were 28,000 nāga kings. The chief among these nāga kings were named Nāga King Padma, Nāga King Elapatra, Nāga King Mahābala, Nāga King Mahāghoṣa, Nāga King Small Waves, Nāga King Holder of Water’s Cause, Nāga King Golden Face, and Nāga King Wish-Fulfilling. They delighted in protecting, holding, and receiving the Mahāyāna Dharma; they aspired to, rejoiced in, and protected and sustained very profound contemplation. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there were an entourage of 36,000 yakṣas. The principal ones among them, led by King Virūpākṣa, were Yakṣa Amra, Yakṣa Holder of Amra, Yakṣa Lotus Radiance, Yakṣa Lotus Face, Yakṣa Bhṛkuti, Yakṣa Frightful Direct Teacher, Yakṣa Bhūmikampa, and Yakṣa Swallower of Foods, all of whom were the chief among those yakṣas. They had developed a mind of faith in the Dharma of the Tathāgata; they had developed an unflagging motivation to protect and guard the Dharma. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
Also gathered there was an entourage of 49,000 garuḍas. The principal one among them was the garuḍa king Gandhahastiprabhāvarāja. There was also an entourage of gandharvas; an entourage of asuras; an entourage of kinnaras; an entourage of kumbhāṇḍas; an entourage of mahoragas; the devas of mountains, forests, rivers, and seas; ṛṣis and the kings of all great lands; the royal courts, queens, attendants, boys, girls, devas, and other people who had developed faith, and so on—all had gathered together and arrived there, and all had the commitment to read, recite, possess, keep, write out, and promulgate, maintain, and protect this unsurpassable Mahāyāna Dharma. In the afternoon they had come into the presence of the Bhagavat, bowed down their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat, circumambulated him three times, keeping him to their right, and then sat to one side.
In that way, all those śrāvakas, bodhisattvas, devas, humans, nāgas, yakṣas, and so on had gathered, each having developed the motivation to venerate and serve; with palms together in homage and with unblinking eyes, they gazed without wavering upon the Bhagavat and aspired to hear the Dharma.
Then the Bhagavat, during that afternoon, arose from samādhi, looked upon the assembly of followers, and recited these verses:
This concludes “The Introduction,” the first chapter of “The Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light.”
At that time, there dwelled in the great city of Rājagṛha a bodhisattva mahāsattva by the name of Ruciraketu. He had planted good roots by serving and attending upon countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of buddhas.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu was staying alone in solitude then, and he was thinking, “Through what causes and through what conditions does the Bhagavat Śākyamuni have such a short lifespan of eighty years?”
He also thought, “The Bhagavat has said, ‘There are two causes and two conditions for a long life. What are those two? Not killing beings and giving food and drink to others.’ The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has forsaken killing beings and has practiced the path of the ten good actions for many countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of eons. He has always given food and drink to all hungry beings, even satisfying them with his own flesh, blood, bones, legs, and so on, not to mention any other kind of food and drink.”
When that bodhisattva was thinking that about the Bhagavat, through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat his house became instantly vast and immense, decorated and clean, adorned by blue beryls and various jewels, so that it was like a buddha realm that was permeated by the wafting, sublime scents of supreme perfumes that transcended the perfumes of the devas.
In the four directions there spontaneously appeared perfect lion thrones made of the four sublime jewels, covered by divine precious cloth. On those thrones were sublime lotuses adorned by various jewels, and their sizes were in proportion to those of the tathāgatas.
Upon those lotuses there were four tathāgatas: Akṣobhya of the east, Ratnaketu of the south, Amitāyus of the west, and Dundubhisvara of the north. Those tathāgatas each sat cross-legged on their individual thrones and radiated light rays that spread through and illuminated the great city of Rājagṛha, the trichiliocosm world realm, and throughout as many buddha realms in the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. A rain of divine flowers fell, and the sound of divine music played. At that time, through the power of the Bhagavat’s blessing, all beings in this trichiliocosm world realm experienced perfect bliss and were free of all distress. Those who did not have all their limbs became complete. The blind saw; the deaf heard; the mute spoke; the stupid became wise; those who were disturbed regained their minds; the unclothed became clothed; those who were inferior and derided became respected by others; those with dirty bodies became clean; and extremely wonderful, beneficial things such as had never been seen before appeared in this world realm.
On seeing the four tathāgatas and those wonderful, amazing things, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu was delighted and overjoyed. He placed his palms together in homage and with a one-pointed mind gazed upon the superior features of the tathāgatas.
He also wondered why the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, who possesses limitless qualities, has only the lifespan he has, thinking, “Why does the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, even though he possesses limitless qualities, have such a short life of only eighty years?”
The four bhagavats then said to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble one, except for we who have unsurpassable omniscience, we do not see any brahmās, māras, mendicants, brahmins, humans, or nonhumans in this world with its devas who can know or calculate the end of the lifespan of the Tathāgata.”
When those bhagavats taught the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat, the devas in the desire and form realms, the nāgas, the yakṣas, the gandharvas, the asuras, the garuḍas, the kinnaras, the mahoragas, and the many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of assembled bodhisattvas gathered and came to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu’s house.
Then those four bhagavats within that vast assembly recited these verses in order to teach the length of the lifespan of the Tathāgata Śākyamuni:
Then the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, having heard from those four tathāgatas the teaching on the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, asked those bhagavats, “Why is it that the Bhagavat Śākyamuni, the Tathāgata, manifests such a short lifespan?”
The four bhagavats replied to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble one, the Bhagavat Śākyamuni has come into the world at the time of the five degenerations. Humans have a hundred-year lifespan, an inferior nature, few and feeble good roots, and no aspiration. Therefore, most of those beings have the view that there is a self, the view that there is an individual, the view that there is a being and a soul, and the view that there is a spirit; they hold erroneous views, the view that there is ‘me’ and ‘mine,’ the views of eternalism and nihilism, and so on. Therefore, the Tathāgata Śākyamuni manifests such a short lifespan so as to benefit many beings and many tīrthikas, so that they will develop true knowledge and quickly attain the highest, most complete enlightenment.
“Moreover, noble one, if those beings see the Tathāgata passing into nirvāṇa, that will cause them to perceive him as being extremely difficult to see. They will perceive misery, suffering, and so on, and they will quickly obtain, possess, carry, read, chant, comprehend, and teach others the teachings of the sūtras spoken by the Buddha Bhagavat and they will not criticize them. That is why the Tathāgata manifests such a short lifespan.
“Why is that? If beings saw that the Tathāgata did not pass into nirvāṇa, they would not reverently attend upon him. They would not perceive him as extremely difficult to meet, and they would not obtain, possess, read, chant, comprehend, and teach others the profound sūtras spoken by the Tathāgata. Why is that? They would have no reverence because they would always see the Buddha.
“As an analogy, noble one, if a man saw that his father had many jewels and increasing wealth, he would not perceive that wealth as wonderful or a rare sight. Why is that? It is because he would perceive his father’s wealth to be permanent.
“Noble one, in the same way, if these many beings saw that the Bhagavat never passed into nirvāṇa, they would not perceive him as wonderful and difficult to see. Why would that be? Because they would see him as permanent.
“As another analogy, noble one, if a man who had poor parents devoid of wealth went to a king’s palace or a great minister’s mansion and saw it filled with various precious treasuries and wealth, he would perceive this as marvelous and difficult to encounter. Then that poor man would commence on various methods in order to acquire wealth and would do so with diligence and without idleness. Why would he do that? He would do so in order to leave behind poverty and destitution and to experience the enjoyment of happiness.
“In the same way, noble one, if those many beings see that the Tathāgata passes into nirvāṇa, they will perceive him as difficult to see, they will develop the perception of him as difficult to see, and so on, up to the perception of misery, suffering, and so on. Moreover, they will think, ‘The tathāgatas appear in the world only after countless, measureless eons have passed. Like fig tree flowers, they hardly ever appear, and then just one time.’ Thus those many beings will think of him as wonderful and perceive him as difficult to see. Then if they see the Tathāgata, they will have veneration and delight, and if they hear the true Dharma teaching, they will perceive it as being the true teaching and they will correctly hold all the sūtras and not criticize them.
“Therefore, noble one, because of those causes and conditions, the Tathāgata does not remain long in the world but passes into nirvāṇa.
“Noble one, the tathāgatas ripen beings through knowing such skillful methods.”
Then, having spoken, the four tathāgatas vanished.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then went to Vulture Peak Mountain together with countless hundreds of thousands of bodhisattvas and the countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of other beings. They arrived before the omniscient Tathāgata Śākyamuni and bowed their heads to the feet of the Bhagavat and sat to one side.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then described in detail what had occurred.
At that time, the four tathāgatas came to where the Bhagavat Śākyamuni was on Vulture Peak Mountain, sat upon the thrones in their individual directions, and said to their bodhisattva attendants, “Noble ones, go to the Bhagavat Śākyamuni and repeat to him these words of ours, asking after his health: ‘Are you not a little unwell? Are you not in some pain? Whether you are standing or sitting, in all your activity, are you in good health?’ Also say this to him: ‘If the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, in order to benefit beings, to dispel the obstacle of famine, and to bring happiness, were to teach today The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, the meaning of the extremely profound Dharma, that would be excellent, excellent! And we also would rejoice in it.’ ”
Those attendants then approached the Bhagavat Śākyamuni from their different directions, bowed their heads to his feet, arranged themselves in a particular place, and in unison made this request to the Bhagavat: “Those teachers of devas and humans, with their limitless voices, inquired after your health, asking, ‘Are you not a little unwell? Are you not in some pain? Whether you are standing or sitting, in all your activity, are you in good health?’ They also said, ‘If the Tathāgata Śākyamuni, in order to benefit beings, to dispel the obstacle of famine, and to bring happiness, were to teach today The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, the meaning of the extremely profound Dharma, that would be excellent, excellent!’ ”
Then the tathāgata arhat samyaksaṃbuddha Śākyamuni said to those bodhisattva attendants, “It is excellent, excellent that those four tathāgatas have requested the true Dharma in order to bring benefit and happiness to all beings!”
At that time, the Bhagavat then spoke these verses:
At that time, in that great assembly, there was a brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa. Together with a retinue of countless hundreds of thousands of brahmins, he had made offerings to the Bhagavat. On hearing the Tathāgata speak the words “passing into nirvāṇa,” he shed tears. Weeping, he bowed down to the Bhagavat’s feet and said to the Bhagavat, “If the Tathāgata truly has love for and great compassion for beings, through your kindness benefit them and bring them happiness. You are like our mother and father, and therefore there is no one else who is like that. You are a protector and refuge for the whole world, and therefore you are as bright and pure as the full moon. You bring illumination with your great wisdom, and therefore you are like the rising sun. You look upon all beings equally, with an affection that is no different from that for Rāhula. I pray that the Bhagavat will give me permission to make a prayer.”
Then the Bhagavat remained silent. Through the power of the blessing of the Bhagavat, a Licchavī youth who was present there, by the name of Seen as Delightful by All Beings, said to the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, “O great brahmin, what kind of prayer are you intent on receiving today from the Bhagavat? I will give it to you.”
“O young man,” replied the brahmin, “I wish to make offerings to the unsurpassable Bhagavat, and therefore today I am requesting from the Tathāgata a relic the size of a mustard seed. Why is that? I have heard that in the past, when a noble man or noble woman had obtained a relic the size of a mustard seed and with veneration honored it and made offerings to it, that individual was reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise and became Śakra, the lord of the devas.”
The youth then said to the brahmin, “If you wish to be reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise and enjoy the perfect ripening of karma, then you should listen, with single-pointed mind, to The Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light. This sūtra is supreme among all sūtras, and therefore it is difficult to know and to penetrate. Therefore, the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are unable to comprehend it. This sūtra gives rise to the limitless ripening of the results of merit and accomplishes that until the attainment of the highest enlightenment. Today I have taught you just a little portion of that subject.”
“Well done, young man,” replied the brahmin. “This Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light is very profound and supreme. It is difficult to know, difficult to penetrate, and therefore even the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas will not comprehend it. Therefore, it goes without saying that we, low-class people from the borderlands, with little, limited knowledge, will not understand it. That is why today I seek a relic of the Tathāgata that is the size of a mustard seed. I will take it to my land, place it in a precious casket, and make offerings to it and honor it with veneration. Then, when I have passed away, I will be Śakra, the lord of the devas, and will continually experience happiness. For my sake, why don’t you make a prayer today to the one with wisdom and virtuous conduct?”
Just then, the youth spoke these verses to the brahmin:
Having heard those verses, the brahmin Dharma master Vyākaraṇa then replied in verse to Seen as Delightful by All Beings, the Licchavī youth: